delegation and, 139–144, 288n4
environmental issues and, 140, 145
food and, 138–140
freedom of choice and, 138
intrinsic value and, 137–138, 145
Lockean Exclamation and, 137–145
loss/gain trials and, 142
Madisonian Exclamation and, 139–141, 144–145
micromanagers and, 140
motivation for, 143–145
nudges and, 138
paternalism and, 138
politics and, 137–139, 145
precautions and, 201
preferences and, 138–139, 142–144
premium of, 141–142
principals and, 139–141
psychology and, 137, 140
rational choice and, 139–141, 157
reactance and, 113, 137
risk and, 138
savings and, 140, 145
self-control and, 87–91, 94, 108, 144, 147
sex and, 138
System 1 and, 140
System 2 and, 140
timing of, 143–145
utility and, 142–143
values and, 137–145
welfare and, 143
Cost-benefit analysis
coercion and, 148, 154–155
contingent valuation and, 175–176, 179
control and, 144
forcing choices and, 83, 284n4
loss/gain trials and, 142
moral heuristics and, 226–229
nudges and, 83, 101, 111, 140, 144, 148, 154, 159, 161, 175
partyism and, 270
precautions and, 203
preferences and, 159, 161, 175
rights and, 243, 248
risk regulation and, 226–232
social norms and, 8, 18, 48–49
transparency and, 184–185, 189–190, 192, 197–199
Criminal behavior
conspiracies and, 20, 33
expressive function of law and, 40, 46, 52
forcing choices and, 72–73
free speech and, 40
group polarization and, 20, 33, 282n28
moral heuristics and, 194, 197
nudges and, 59, 63, 72–73, 161
preferences and, 161
rights and, 243
signaling behavior and, 46
transparency and, 194, 197
Cropper, Maureen, 225
Darwinism, 116
Data.gov, 188
DDT, 207
Deadweight Loss of Christmas, The (Waldfogel), 48–49
Default rules
choice architecture and, 68, 71–72, 81, 87, 95–101, 104, 109–110, 114–115, 118, 121, 123, 125, 130, 148
coercion and, 147–150, 155
control and, 138
counternudges and, 96, 102–111
effectiveness of, 62
effort tax and, 97–99
ethics and, 115–134
forcing choices and, 68, 70–72, 75–77, 79–82
informational signal of, 98, 101, 113
loss aversion and, 98, 100, 103, 109–110, 130, 135, 154
nudges and, 59–62, 68–72, 75–82, 87, 92, 95–134, 138, 147–150, 155, 176
preferences and, 98–101, 176
privacy and, 104
sticking rules and, 97–98, 105–106, 108
welfare and, 87, 92
Delegation
control and, 139–144, 288n4
forcing choices and, 79–84
nudges and, 69, 79–84, 139–144
partyism and, 269–270
Democrats, 197, 258–260, 262–263, 266, 270–271
Deontologists, 131
behavioral evidence and, 248–250
central objection to, 251–252
cognitive reflection test (CRT) and, 249–250
footbridge problem and, 174–175, 245–248, 250, 254
Kantians vs. Benthamites and, 252
legal issues and, 243
morals and, 216, 220–223, 243–244, 253–255
neuroscience and, 244–253
psychology and, 220–221, 245, 250–251, 255
punishment and, 243
rights and, 243–255, 301nn2,4, 302nn18,22
torture and, 243
trolley problem and, 174–175, 245–246, 250, 254
visual/verbal cognitive styles and, 248–249
de Wijk, Rene A., 100–101
Dignity
coercion and, 149
ethics and, 115, 117, 119–120, 126–128, 134
expressive function of law and, 52–55
forcing choices and, 68, 78, 80, 84
Disabilities, 3, 170
Disclosure
coercion and, 152
ethics and, 117, 126, 130, 134
forcing choices and, 76
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) and, 186–187, 190, 197–198
nudges and, 60–63, 65, 76, 95, 107–108, 111–113, 117, 126, 130, 134, 152, 176
preferences and, 176
Presidential Records Act and, 198
transparency and, 184–199
Discrimination
African Americans and, 21, 34, 39, 46–47, 171, 258–260
availability heuristic and, 10–12
civil rights and, 14–15, 43, 51
ethics and, 115
moral heuristics and, 217
nudges and, 63, 115
online, 278n10
preferences and, 12–13, 170–172, 178–179
prejudice and, 21 (see also Prejudice)
racism and, 15, 21, 257, 261–262
religious, 6–7, 115, 170
republicanism and, 12
Saudi Arabia and, 5–6, 8, 13–14
sex, 6, 8–15, 115, 170
social norms and, 6–15, 43, 51–52, 279n25
Trump and, 16
unleashing and, 6–15
xenophobia and, 16
Drugs
Food and Drug Administration and, 189, 192
lag to market of, 206, 209
nudges and, 107, 139, 162
pharmaceutical profits and, 253–254
social norms and, 7, 15, 46–47
Duelfer Report, 265
Economic incentives
expressive function of law and, 54, 283n13
nudges and, 59, 61, 97, 103, 111
Effort tax, 97–99
Egorov, Georgy, 16
Emissions, 53–54, 111, 153, 183, 189, 229–230
Enclave deliberation, 20, 35–37
Endangered Species Act, 41
Entitlements
coercion and, 153
forcing choices and, 78, 284n4
nudges and, 78, 87, 106–107, 153, 177, 284n4
preferences and, 177
transparency and, 186, 194
welfare and, 87
Environmental issues
coercion and, 150–153
control and, 140, 145
DDT and, 206
economic incentives and, 283n13
emissions and, 53–54, 111, 153, 183, 189, 229–230
expressive function of law and, 41, 44–45, 53–54
forcing choices and, 68
fuel economy and, 59, 87, 111, 152–155, 185
genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and, 10, 30, 202, 205–207, 209, 239
group polarization and, 32, 35
hazardous waste and, 32, 233
moral heuristics and, 229
nudges and, 62–63, 65, 68, 87, 97, 111, 114, 140, 150–153
pollution, 45, 53, 95, 111, 115, 147, 152–153, 183, 188–189, 205, 225, 228–230, 283n13
precautions and, 203
Seas at Risk conference and, 203–204
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) and, 188–189
transparency and, 183–184, 188, 192
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and, 203
unleashing and, 11
welfare and, 87
Wingspread Declaration and, 203
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 183–184, 189, 192, 195, 270
Equal Protection Clause, 55
eRecall, 187
Ethics
abstraction and, 117–122
active choosing and, 118–120, 124–125, 132–134
automatic enrollment and, 124, 127–128
autonomy and, 115, 117, 119–125, 129–134
availability heuristic and, 122
bans and, 116, 133
beliefs and, 126, 128
bias and, 116–118, 122–124, 133
choice architecture and, 115–125, 130, 133–134
coercion and, 116, 121, 124–126
consumers and, 120, 122
context and, 134–135
convergence of theories on, 301n2
default rules and, 115–134
dignity and, 115, 117, 119–120, 126–128, 134
disclosure and, 117, 126, 130, 134
discrimination and, 115
food and, 120, 122, 129
freedom of choice and, 116, 120–122, 125–126, 135
human cloning and, 235–237
insults and, 120, 125–126, 129–130
intuition and, 235–236, 253, 297n16, 298n32
learning and, 132–133
loss aversion and, 130, 135
manipulation and, 117, 119–120, 125–135
negative option marketing and, 120
nudges and, 116, 133
paternalism and, 120–124
politics and, 118, 127
prejudice and, 115
religion and, 115
reminders and, 121, 127, 130, 132, 134
retirement and, 120, 127–128, 133
risk and, 121–127
sex and, 115
simplification and, 130
social norms and, 118, 121, 127, 130–131
statistics and, 119
System 1 and, 117, 126, 131, 135
System 2 and, 117
values and, 121–122
warnings and, 117–118, 121, 127, 130–135
welfare and, 115–117, 119, 121–126, 131–132, 134
Ethnification, 34–35
Evaluability, 158–160, 163, 167–168, 170, 172, 179
Evolution, 223–226, 238
Expressive function of law
bans and, 41, 47, 50
Brown v. Board of Education and, 40
cascades and, 46, 48
coercion and, 47
collective action and, 44–46, 51–52
commodification and, 50
consequences and, 53–54
constraints and, 54–55
criminal behavior and, 40, 46, 52
danger and, 46–48
dignity and, 52–55
discrimination and, 43, 51–52
economic incentives and, 54, 283n13
endangered species and, 41, 44
environmental issues and, 41, 44–45, 53–54
equality and, 51–52
flag burning and, 40–41, 52
hate speech and, 41, 43
immigrants and, 40, 44
injustice and, 40, 44
insults and, 49
making statements and, 41–44
mandates and, 42, 45
money and, 48–51
paternalism and, 41, 47–48
Plessy v. Ferguson and, 40
punishment and, 40, 43–44, 48
qualifications and, 52
risk and, 41–42, 46–48, 55
sanctions and, 41, 44, 47–48, 50–51
segregation and, 40, 43, 283n1
social norms and, 39–55
students and, 39, 43
utility and, 46–47
welfare and, 43–44, 46, 52
Externalities, 87, 111, 153, 177
Famine, 185–186
Federalist No. 10, 268, 288n4
Federalist Society, 5
Federal Reserve Board, 102–104, 106
Federation for American Immigration Reform, 16
Feminism
#MeToo movement and, 11, 21, 273
moral heuristics and, 217, 221
social norms and, 21, 24, 26, 35, 51
Fiorin, Stefano, 16
Flag burning, 40
fMRI studies, 246, 302n18
Food
coercion and, 148
control and, 138–140
ethics and, 120, 122, 129
genetically modified, 10, 30, 202, 205–207, 209, 239
healthy, 59–60, 63, 93, 100–101, 112–113, 129, 138–139
moral heuristics and, 237
nudges and, 59–60, 63, 89, 100–101, 110, 112–113, 120, 122, 129, 138–140, 148
nutrition facts and, 59
organic, 7, 208
placement of, 100
precautions and, 205–209, 212, 296n24
safety regulations and, 110
transparency and, 60, 186, 189, 192
weight issues and, 65, 89
welfare and, 101
Food stamps, 49
Footbridge problem, 174–175, 245–248, 250, 254
Forcing choices
active choosing and, 62, 68–82, 85
agency and, 68, 72, 78, 80, 84
alienation and, 81
asymmetries and, 81–82
autonomy and, 68, 76–81, 84–85
availability heuristic and, 83
beliefs and, 69
bias and, 69, 82–83
choice architecture and, 68, 71–72
coercion and, 68, 70, 72
collective action and, 72, 78, 81, 83
consumers and, 68, 71, 73, 76
cost-benefit analysis and, 83, 284n4
criminal behavior and, 72–73
default rules and, 68, 70–72, 75–77, 79–82
delegation and, 79–84
dignity and, 68, 78, 80, 84
disclosure and, 76
emotional costs and, 67, 79, 284n4
entitlements and, 78, 284n4
environmental issues and, 68
freedom of choice and, 68, 78, 80–81, 84
insults and, 78, 80, 82
intrinsic value and, 84
intuitive vs. deliberative systems and, 68
morals and, 69
nudges and, 67–85
paternalism and, 68–72, 77–85
politics and, 76
preferences and, 69–73, 76
pride of place and, 68
privacy and, 65, 67, 70, 73, 80
punishment and, 72
religion and, 81
retirement and, 73, 75, 80, 85
risk and, 82
sanctions and, 72–73
statistics and, 68, 84
System 1 and, 68
System 2 and, 68
values and, 78, 84–85
varieties of choice and, 71–75
warnings and, 81
welfare and, 68, 70, 77–84
Fox News, 264, 266
Framing, 92, 109–110, 130–132, 224–226, 228, 298n27
Frederick, Shane, 218
Freedom of choice
agency and, 68 (see also Agency)
coercion and, 147–152, 155, 289n2
control and, 138
ethics and, 116, 120–122, 125–126, 135
forcing choices and, 68, 78, 80–81, 84
nudges and, xi, 60, 68, 78, 80–81, 84, 108–110, 114, 116, 120–122, 125–126, 135, 138, 147–152, 155, 289n2
welfare and, 68, 78, 84, 108, 110, 114, 150, 152, 289n2
Freedom of information, 186–187, 189–190, 197–199
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 186–187, 190, 197–198
Freedom of speech, 44, 109, 186, 243–244, 250
French Revolution, x
Fuel economy, 59, 87, 111, 152–155, 185
Gender issues, 6, 11, 35, 39, 51, 170, 172
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs), 10, 30, 202, 205–207, 209, 239
Gibbs,
Lois Marie, 32
God, xi, 137, 226, 235–238
Gould, Stephen Jay, 217
Greene, Joshua, 253
Greenhouse gases, 111, 183, 189, 198, 205
Group polarization
affective factors and, 28
affirmative action and, 19–20, 26
argument pools and, 20, 26, 29, 35
cascades and, 21, 31–32, 34
coercion and, 33
confidence and, 20, 22, 27–28, 32–33, 35
corroboration and, 20, 27
criminal behavior and, 20, 33, 282n28
culture and, 34–35, 280n2
deliberation and, 19–25, 29–31, 35–37
depolarization and, 29–30
environmental issues and, 32, 35
events and, 31–32
extremism and, 20–22, 27–28, 33, 37, 281n16
gun rights and, 19
hate speech and, 33
identity and, 28–29
immigration and, 19
injustice and, 20, 36–37
legal issues and, 19, 24
manipulation and, 28
mechanisms of, 21–22, 25–27
out-groups and, 33–34
outrage heuristic and, 24–25
polarization entrepreneurs and, 32
politics and, 20, 22, 24, 28–33, 35
prejudice and, 21, 36
psychology and, 21
punishment and, 24–25, 29, 31
refinements on, 27–30
religion and, 20, 31
reputation and, 20–21, 34–35
risk and, 20, 22–26, 29, 36
role of information and, 20–21, 25–29, 31, 34–35
self-categorization and, 281n16
shared identity and, 20
shifts and, 22–30
social comparison and, 26–27, 281n16
social norms and, 19–37
solidarity and, 28–29
statistics and, 19, 22, 27–28
strife and, 34–35
students and, 20
suppressed voices and, 29, 34–37
Gun rights, 19, 27
Gypsy (TV series), 17
Hate speech, 33, 41, 43
Hayek, F. A., 123, 133
Hazardous waste, 32, 233
Hedonic tax, 67, 79, 139–140
Hill, Anita, 11
Hirschman, Albert, 95, 114, 285n2
Hitler, Adolph, x, 7
Homunculus, 216–219, 227, 229, 234, 239, 255
Human error, 83, 147, 155
Hussein, Saddam, 265
Immigrants, 11, 16–17, 19, 40, 44, 138, 141
Implementation intentions, 64
Implicit association test (IAT), 258–259, 303n4
Injustice, 13, 20, 36–37, 40, 44
Insults
ethics and, 120, 125–126, 129–130
expressive function of law and, 49
forcing choices and, 78, 80, 82
Intrinsic value, 84, 137–138, 145, 149, 152
Iraq War, 265
Iyengar, Shanto, 258–261, 264
Journalists, 191–192, 195–196
Judd, Ashley, 11
Kahneman, Daniel, 215–216, 218, 224, 240
Kass, Leon, 236–237
Kennedy, John F., x
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 11, 32