Kidarites, 120
Kirghiz, 108, 190, 216, 226
Kizil caves, 56–58, 60–65, 62, 63, 67, 77
Koguryo, 128
Kongque (Peacock) River, 27
Korea, 128, 147, 157, 165
Korla, 60, 75
Kratchkovsky, I. Y., 130
Kroraina Kingdom, 28–29
Buddhism in, 26, 30, 31, 33–35, 47, 51–55, 53
burial practices, 38–42, 41
coins of, 35–36, 42–43, 48–50
Gandhara immigrants, 26–27, 30, 32, 35, 37–38, 44–48, 50–52
and Kharoshthi script, 25, 26–27, 30, 32–38, 42–43, 45–47
Stein’s explorations of, 12–13, 25–27, 30, 32–38, 42–43, 45–47, 53–54
Kucha
and Buddhism, 56–57, 66–70, 76–77, 80
and Hedin’s explorations, 58–60
and the Kizil caves, 56–58, 60–65, 62, 67, 77
and Kumarajiva, 21
political control of, 75–82
religions of, 228
routes through, 58–59
and the Tang dynasty, 79–82, 211
and tourism, 10
and trade, 76–82
See also Kuchean language
Kucha caves, 10
Kucha River, 58
Kuchean language
and Kumarajiva, 21, 56–57, 66
and Pelliot’s expedition, 65
and Qu family rulers, 91
scholarship on, 70–77
and transformation texts, 188
travel passes, 57, 79, 80
and Turfan, 82–83
word for “coin,” 259n58
Küchlük, 229
Kultobe, 116
Kum, 129
Kumamoto, Hiroshi, 226
Kumarajiva, 21, 56, 57, 66–70, 67, 240
Kum River, 130
Kumtura, 61, 77
Kushan Empire, 18, 47–48, 52, 71, 202–3, 248n15
Kyrgyzstan, 90, 113
Lake Issyk-kul, 90, 113, 114
land deeds, 45–47
Lane, George Sherman, 72
languages of the Silk Road. See specific languages
Laozi, 182
lapis lazuli, 194
Late Khotanese, 210
Later Qin dynasty, 68–69
laws
and archeology, 34, 143, 149
and bankruptcy, 165
and Buddhism, 47, 51, 61
Islamic law, 136, 228–29, 232–33
and land distribution, 92
and moneylending, 151
and raids, 49
and silk as currency, 49
and trade regulations, 165
and travel restrictions, 17, 36
See also contracts
lay associations, 193
leather documents, 132, 137
leather products, 227
Le Coq, Albert von, 12, 60, 61–62, 64–65, 110, 175
legal documents, 45–47, 46, 228
Liangzhou, 85, 144, 184
Liangzhu, 19
Liao dynasty, 228
library cave. See Dunhuang
Li Cheng, 143
Li Guangli, 65
Li Mi, 157
Lingdi, Han-dynasty Emperor, 32
Li Shaojin, 148–49
Li Shengtian, 222
Lishi Yanjiu, 176
literature, 157–58
livestock. See cattle; horses
loan documents
and Duldur Aqur documents, 81
and Khotanese legal system, 215
and monasteries, 194
and moneylender Zuo’s tomb, 96
and pawn tickets, 151
and Sogdian merchants, 159
and Tang law, 103, 111
Lóczy, Lajos, 167–68
long-distance trade, 13
looting, 212
Lotus Sutra, 56, 69
Loulan
abandonment of, 54–55
and diplomatic envoys, 50
and the Han dynasty, 34
and Kharoshthi documents, 26, 237
and Kroraina Kingdom, 27
and migrant populations, 21, 236
and the Shanshan Kingdom, 42–44
and Stein’s explorations, 35
and trade documents, 42–44
wooden artifacts of, 36–38, 42–43, 45
Lü Guang, 68
Luo Feng, 97
Luoyang, 17, 108, 117–19, 150, 157
Macartney, George, 209, 212, 228
The Mahabharata (Sanskrit epic), 52
Mahayana Buddhism, 52, 66–68, 69
Mahmud of Kashgar, 196, 227–28, 234
mail service, 112, 116, 196–97, 239
Maitreya Buddha, 61, 211
Malzahn, Melanie, 73
Manchus, 232–33
mandalas, 186
Manichaeism
in art, 109, color plate 11A
and Chang’an, 159
and Dunhuang cave documents, 167, 181, 182–83, 241
and immigrant populations, 4
and Uighurs, 108–11, 109, 228
Marinus, 7
marriage contracts, 133–34
Mashik, 93, 95
Mauryan dynasty, 47
mazar shrines, 234, color plate 16A
Mazar Tagh, 216
medicine, 153, 154
Melikawat, 199, 207
Meng Fanren, 176
merchants
and banditry, 193, 240
Bento de Goes, 231–32
caravans in the Zhou dynasty, 79
in Caucasus region, 138
in Chang’an markets, 148–49, 157–58
and contract law, 103
and Gansu Province, 85
and Hedin’s travels, 11
Iranian, 2, 3, 159
and jataka tales, 64
Jewish, 31–32, 217–18, 219, 231
Kharoshthi sources on, 50
and local trade, 237
misconceptions about, 82, 111, 184
and the Mongol Empire, 231
and Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 18
and precious stones, 194–95
and Qing dynasty, 233
regulation of, 37, 104, 237–38
and sea travel, 160–65, 162–63
and the silk trade, 49
Sogdian traders, 43, 81, 104, 116, 119–20, 125, 136, 138, 157–59, 239
and taxes, 99, 100–102, 102
and Turfan, 96, 106
and Zhang Qian’s travels, 14
metalsmithing, 156
metalwares, 194
Methods & Aims in Archaeology (Stein), 176–77
Middle Khotanese, 210
Middle Persian, 71–72, 182, 210, 217
migrant populations, 47–48, 200, 235, 239, 240. See also nomadic people; refugees
military presence on the Silk Road
economic impact of, 8–9, 107
and the Han dynasty, 8, 14–15, 236
and Kroraina Kingdom, 42
and Tang-dynasty payments to soldiers, 184, 215, 237
Minfeng, 33
Ming dynasty, 111, 151
Mintaka Pass, 32
Minway, 118–19, 239
Miran, 27, 53–54, color plate 5B
missionaries, 66, 150, 183, 238, 240
Mithra, 134
Mohoyan Desert, 85
Mongols, 110, 229, 231
monotheism, 118
Moshchevaia Balka, 137–38
Mount Ling, 113
Mount Mugh, 21, 129–39, 131
Mount Wutai, 186, 187
Muhammad, 129, 230
multilingual texts, 214
mummies. See human remains
murals, 125, 126, 128, 129, 138–39
Musakazim Mazar, color plate 16B
Museum of Indian Art (Berlin), 110
musk, 232
Muslim conquests. See Islam
&n
bsp; mutual aid societies, 193
Muzart River, 58, 60
Nalanda, 240
Nana (goddess), 124, 126
Nanga Parbat, 27
National Library of China, 213, 217–18
naus structures, 123
Neelis, Jason, 32
negotiation for Dunhuang artifacts, 174–77
nephrite, 207
Nestorians, 110, 149
New Persian, 217, 219
Nisi Chilag, 218
Niya
abandonment of, 54
and banditry, 240
and Buddhism, 51–54, 53, 61, 172, 206, 225
climate of, 38, 199 coins of, 48–49, 91
and diplomatic envoys, 50, 94, 236
and extent of Silk Road trade, 237
and Gandhari-speaking residents, 32
and Hedin’s explorations, 38, 43
joint burials at, color plate 7
and Kharoshthi script documents, 33, 35, 40, 42–44, 46, 46–47, 51, 202
and Khotanese documents, 199
languages of, 56–57
and migrant populations, 21, 236–37, 239
silk artifacts of, 40
and Stein’s explorations, 25–30, 33–38, 37, 42–43, 167, 173–74, 207, 209
stupas, 33–35, 52–54, 53, 205, color plate 6
and travel passes, 36–37, 104
wooden carvings of, 38
and the Yuezhi, 71
nomadic people, 65, 73, 90, 200–201, 203. See also migrant populations
Norman Conquest, 210
Northern Liang dynasty, 172
Northern Qi dynasty, 143
Northern Wei dynasty, 55, 141–43, 144
Northern Zhou dynasty, 143, 144, 146–47
Ol’denburg, S.F., 175
Old Khotanese, 210
Ordam Padishah Mazar, 234
ossuaries, 98, 123, 123, 143, 239
Ōtani Kozui, 12, 82
Ot-tegin, 133
padam face masks, 123, 128, 145, 147
paintings
An Jia’s tomb, 144, color plate 14
Bezelik caves, color plate 9
and Dandan Uiliq, 213
and Dunhuang caves, 24, 167–69, 168, 172–79, 178, 181, 186, 188–90, 189, 223, 240
and Kizil caves, 61–65, 62, 63
and Manichaeism, 111
and Sogdian culture, 116, 121, 124, 125–29, 126, 138–39, 154
stupa at Niya, 53, 53–54
Palembang, 164
Pamir Knot, 10, 27
Panchatantra (Indian tales), 125
Panjikent excavations, 121–26, 124, 126, 134–39, 154
paper
early uses of, 16
and funerary garments, 2
and Khotanese envoys, 222
in Kucha, 77
and monastery schools, 179
and Mount Mugh excavations, 132
reuse of, 2, 3–4, 24, 83, 84, 94, 137, 151, 177
in Samarkand, 137–38
and Sogdian documents, 117–18
spread of, 15, 137–39, 238
and trade product, 5–6
and Turfan, 83, 84, 92
See also printing
Parthia, 202
Parthian language, 182
pawn tickets, 140, 151
Pax Mongolica, 229
Pazyryk, 13–14
pearls, 50, 151, 156, 159, 165, 194, 196, 240
Pelliot, Paul
and Duldur Aqur, 74–75, 79–80
and Dunhuang cave, 175–77, 180, 183
and Kucha, 65, 77
and Xinjiang documents, 12
Pem, 230
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, 18–19
Persian language, 137, 217–18. See also Middle Persian
Petrie, William Matthew Flinders, 176–77
petroleum, 75
Petrovsky, Nikolai, 211
Phema, 230
photography, 176
phrasebooks, 220–21, 240
pilgrimages, 221, 234, color plate 16B
Pinault, Georges-Jean, 74, 78
pinyin, 70
plaid textiles, 13
Pliny the Elder, 19–20
poetry, 77, 188
Polo, Marco, 10, 229, 241–42
“The Polyglot Library,” 181
porcelain, 165
posatha ceremonies, 51
pothi, 180
poverty, 118–19
“Praise of the World of Light” (hymn scroll), 182
precious stones, 194
prefectures, 79, 91
prenuptial agreements, 133–34
printing, 138, 179, 236. See also paper
Protectorate General of Anxi, 91
Protvantak, 146
Ptolemy, 7, 19
Puloti, Abdulhamid, 129–30
Punyavan, 73–74
Qadir Khan, Yusuf, 227
Qarlups, 137
Qin dynasty, 19
Qing dynasty, 9, 111, 169, 232–33
Qinghai Mountains, 9
Qu family, 90, 91
Quianfodong caves at Dunhuang, 172
Qutayba ibn Muslim, 129
Qu Wentai, 89, 91
raiding, 49–51, 185, 213. See also robbers and bandits
railroad lines, 8, color plate 2–3
Ramshotsa, 45–46
Rapson, E. J., 43
Rawak, 10, 199, 204, 205, 206
Record of Travels to the West (Xuanzang), 115
redistribution of land, 91–92
refugees
and cultural exchange, 4
and dispersal of technologies, 239
and Kroraina Kingdom, 26, 45
Sasanian, 149
Sogdian, 22–23
Uighur, 190–91
use of Silk Road routes, 238
See also migrant populations
religious tolerance, 146, 181–82, 241
retail trade, 122
Ricci, Matteo, 232
Richthofen, Ferdinand von, 6–8, 235
and “Silk Road” term, color plate 2–3
river travel, 58–60, 141–43