and the Tang dynasty, 103–4, 192–93
and Tibetan rule, 185, 216–17
and wooden documents, 214–15
See also loan documents
coral, 194
corpses. See burial practices;
human remains Cos (Greek island), 19
cosmopolitanism, 30, 83, 128, 167, 181–82. See also Chang’an
cotton textiles, 38, 39, 138, 195
court records, 2, 3
craftsmen, 238
Crimean Peninsula, 229
Ctesiphon, 120
cultural exchanges, 5, 21, 25, 26, 238
Cultural Revolution, 93, 94, 152, 175
Dandan Uiliq
Archive of Khotanese material, 286nn37, 39
Buddhist statues of, 12
Hedin on, 286n26
Judeo-Persian documents, 219
and Khotanese documents, 199, 210, 212–13, 213, 221–22
and Stein’s excavations, 217–18
and tax documents, 215–17
Daoism, 80, 108, 169
“Daoist Wang.” See Wang Yuanlu
Daozhen, 178–79
Da Qin, 18, 32
de Goes, Bento, 231–32, 242
Deng Xiaoping, 93
Devaputra, 187
Devashtich, 130, 134–36
dharma, 47, 55. See also Buddhism
Dharmaguptakas, 52
The Diamond Sutra, 24, 179, 183, 236, 241
diao taxes, 152
diplomats. See envoys
divorce, 133
dmar, 185–86
Domoko, 199, 213
donkeys, 78, 79, 83
Duldur Aqur, 79–80, 82
Dunhuang
and Buddhist pilgrimages, 221
cave 1, (see library cave subentry below)
cave paintings, 24, 167–69, 168, 172–79, 178, 181, 186, 188–90, 189, 223, 240
and diplomatic envoys, 15, 188, 191–92, 224–25
and the Gansu Corridor, 9
and the Han dynasty, 14, 168–69
and Hebrew documents, color plate 12
and Khotanese documents, 24, 181, 199, 210, 220, 226, 241
library cave at, 24, 167, 168, 169, 173–75, 177–79, 178, 180, 181–83, 187–88, 198, 199, 218–20, 222, 226, 228, 241
location of, 170–71
and religious toleration, 241
rulers of, 190
scope of documents at, 24
and the Sogdian Ancient
Letters, 116–19
and Stein, 167–77, 172, 180–81, 196–97
and the Tang dynasty, 184–85, 186–88
and tourism, 10
Uighur conquest of, 216
Dunhuang Research Institute, 172, 172, 178
Du You, 107
earthquakes, 61
Eastern Market (Chang’an), 142, 148
Eastern Turks, 149
edicts
and Buddhism, 47
and Kharoshthi documents, 49
and Khotan, 198, 227
and Qing dynasty, 232
and Shanshan, 35, 250n25
travel bans, 261n3
and Xuanquan site, 15
education
language education, 56, 220–21, 240
and spread of paper technology, 137–39
Elgin Marbles, 175
Endere, 35, 52, 199, 207, 209
envoys
and the Afrasiab murals, 129, color plate 11B
and the An Lushan rebellion, 157
and character of the Silk Road, 238
documentary evidence on, 50–51, 240–41
and Dunhuang, 15, 188, 191–92, 224–25
and Gaochang Kingdom, 94
and Khotan, 16, 191, 192, 202, 222–26, 241
and Kroraina Kingdom, 28–29, 49–50
epitaphs, 99, 143–44, 146, 240
ethnic diversity of the Silk Road, 13, 136
fabrics. See textiles
Fadu, 32
fan (“foreign”), 194
Faxian, 55, 160–64, 162–63, 205–6, 240
Ferghana, 16, 136
fire altars and temples, 118, 123. 124, 144, color plate 15. See also Zoroastrianism
Forest of Steles (Beilin) Museum, 149
Four Garrisons, 79, 211, 260n67
fragrances, 194
France, 167
frankincense, 20, 165
fraudulent artifacts, 97, 207, 217
Freiman, A. A., 130
frescoes, 212
Fu Hao, 13
funerary garments, 2, 3. See also burial practices
Furen Khi-vyaina, 225
Gandhara region
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 156
and house excavation, 37
and Kroraina Kingdom, 26–27, 30, 32, 35, 37–38, 44–48, 50–52
and Kucha, 66
and Kumarajiva, 56
and migrant populations, 50–51, 239
and the Rawak statues, 205
seals of, 46
Gandhari language, 30, 32, 51, 56, 66, 71, 209
Gansu Corridor, 9, 14, 59
Gansu Province
and business partnerships, 119
and caravan trade, 232
climate of, 13
and coin shortages, 195
and De Goes’ expedition, 232
and Shi Wirkak, 146
and Stein’s expeditions, 167–68, 196
and Tang rule, 107–8, 184, 237
and Tibetan rule, 108, 158, 185–86
and Uighur rule, 111, 190, 196, 220
and Wuwei, 42, 68, 79, 85, 137, 144, 146
and Xiyu (Western Regions), 9
and the Yuezhi, 32, 71
Ganzhou, 190, 192, 224–25
Gaochang, 89, 89–95, 98–99, 105, 108
Gao Juren, 157
Gaozong, Tang-dynasty Emperor, 125
garbage pits, 15, 36, 131
Garuda, 61
gems, 155–56, 194
Genghis Khan, 229
Germany, 167
Ghafar, Abdul, 34
Ghurak, 135
Gilgit River, 32
Gilgit Road, 30
glassmaking, 122, 238
Global Positioning System, 212
Gobi Desert, 9, 55
Godfrey, S. H., 209
gold, 41, 48–49, 93, 96–98, 100–102, 153–54, 156, 165, 205, 231, 239. See also gold under coins entry
Gongyuecheng, 103
Govind Kaul, 12
graffiti, 30–32, 31, 76
grain, 132, 184, 194
graves, 201–2. See also Astana graveyard; burial practices; human remains
Greater Yuezhi, 32
Great Leap Forward, 93
Greek culture, 18–19, 46, 48, color plate 13
Grenet, Frantz, 138–39
Grünwedel, Albert, 65, 175
Guangzhou (Canton), 150, 161, 164, 165–66
Guanyin, 88, 161, 193
Guanyin Monastery, 151–52
guosuo. See travel passes
Guo Xin, 80
hajj pilgrimage, 232, 234, 241
Hami, 85, 88–89, 104, 107, 232
Han dynasty
and Chang’an, 17, 34, 65, 141, 143, 147
and coins, 156
and diplomatic envoys, 236
and Dunhuang cave
documents, 14, 168–69
and foreign influence in art, 20–21
and Khotan, 202
and Kroraina Kingdom, 26, 32, 34–37, 42, 55
and Kucha, 65–66
and military presence on the Silk Road, 8, 14–15, 236
and trade with Rome, 20–21
and Turfan, 83, 90
hang (“row”), 148
Hangzhou Silk Museum, 19
Han Wudi, 65
Hebei Province, 157
Hebrew, 31–32, 181, 217, 218–19, 219, 241, color plate 12
Hedin, Sven
and itinerant trader
s, 11, 237–38
and Khotan, 12, 13, 212
and Kroraina Kingdom, 27
and Kucha, 58–60
Niya and Loulan excavations, 38, 43
and “Silk Road” term, 8
and Taklamakan Desert, 11–12, 242, color plate 10
Hejiacun Village Hoard, 152–57, 153–54, 155, 239
Henan Province, 235–36
Henning, W. B., 71
Hephthalites, 75, 120–21
Heraclius, 156
herding, 132. See also cattle
Hermitage Museum, 122
Hinayana Buddhism, 68, 69
Hinaza Deva Vijitasimha, 209
The History of the Han Dynasty. 34, 35
The History of the Later Han, 34, 40
Hoernle, Frederick Rudolf, 209–10
Hongbian, 177, 178
horses, 16, 78, 80–82, 222–24
house excavations, 37, 38
Huang Chao, 165–66
Huili, 85, 87, 88–89, 113, 114
Hulu River, 85, 86
human remains, 38–42, 41, 92–93, 201–2. See also burial practices
Huns, 117, 120–21
Huntington, Ellsworth, 212
Hunza River, 32
Husejnov, D., 130
Huvishka, 52
Ibn Hawkal, 122
Ibrahim (guide), 33–34
imperialism, 175
imported goods, 194, 233
incenses, 194
India
and An Jia, 143
Buddhist missionaries, 66
and de Goes’ travels, 231
and Dunhuang cave documents, 186–87
funding for expeditions, 212
gemstones of, 156
influence in Kroraina Kingdom, 25–26, 45
and migrant populations, 200, 236, 239
and pilgrimage routes, 162–63
and religious art, 122, 125–27, 126
and Roman coins, 20
and sea travel, 160–65, 162–63
and silk production, 19
and Stein’s expeditions, 174
and Turfan, 94
Indus River, 32
International Dunhuang Project, 176
inventory documents, 194
Iran
and Chang’an, 150
and Hejiacun Village Hoard, 154, 155
and imported goods, 194
languages of, 210
and Manichaeism, color plate 11A
and Sasanian refugees, 149
and the Sogdians, 113
trade with Tang dynasty, 97
and Zoroastrianism, 118, 181
Iraq, 165
Isai, Abdullah (Bento de Goes), 231–32
Islam
and coin designs, 97
and the Huang Chao rebellion, 165
Islamic law, 228, 232
and Khotan, 24, 199, 201, 218, 226–34, 241–42
and mazar shrines, 234, color plate 16A
and Sasanian refugees, 149
and Sogdiana, 116, 129, 131, 136–37
spread with migrant populations, 139
and Turfan, 95, 98, 111
and use of paper, 138
Ito Toshio, 43
jade
and de Goes, 231–32
and diplomatic envoys, 222–27, 241
and earliest Silk Road trade, 235–36
and Xuanzang’s travels, 207
Jade Gate, 85, 86
Jafar Sadik, Imam, 33
Japan, 167
jataka stories, 62–63, 63, 73–74
Jesuit missionaries, 150, 231–32
Jewish merchants, 31–32, 217–18, 219, 231
Jiangsu, 164
Jiang Xiaowan, 169, 173–76, 180
Jiaohe, 91
Jiayuguan, 232
Jingjing, 183
Jingjue Kingdom, 35, 36, 40–41
jitumgha, 44
Jiumoluoshi, 70. See also Kumarajiva
Jiuquan, 119
Judaism, 165, 167, 241
Judeo-Persian language, 219
judicial assemblies, 215
Jushi people, 90
Kabul, 231
Kageyama Etsuko, 98
Kaiyuan reign period, 156
Karakash River, 207
Karakhanids, 226–28, 241, color plate 16A
Karakhoja, 93
Karakorum Highway, 30, 31, 31–32, 53, 218
karma, 164
Kashgar, 79, 218, 227, 234
Kashmir, 156
Keriya, 33, 53
Khakhsar, 135
Khan, Sher Ali, 196–97
Kharoshthi script
and Endere documents, 207–9
and Kroraina Kingdom
documents, 25, 26–27, 30, 32–38, 42–43, 45–47
and Kumarajiva, 57
and Niya and Loulan
documents, 202, 237
and Sogdian documents, 117
Khoja Afaq, 232–33
Khorezm, 128
Khotan, 200–201
and Afghan caravans, 196
and Buddhism, 199–200, 203–7, 210–12, 221, 225, 227, 228–29, 231, 240
and diplomatic envoys, 16, 191, 192, 202, 222–26, 241
and Hedin’s explorations, 12, 13, 212
and Islam, 24, 199, 201, 218, 226–34, 241–42
and the jade trade, 235–36
and Kroraina Kingdom, 48, 49–51, 54
and mazar shrines, 234
and the Tang dynasty, 79, 211, 226
and Uighur population, 226, 233–34
Khotanese
and Buddhist monasteries, 240
and Dunhuang cave
documents, 24, 181, 199, 210, 220, 226, 241
and Islamic conquest, 199
and legal contracts, 209
and royal documents, 198
and Uighur language, 199, 211, 234
Khotan River, 11, 207
Khubilai Khan, 111
Khujand, 136
Khunjerab Pass, 32
Khusrau II, 156
Khvarnarse, 209