The 1920s also brought many social changes in the United States. In-
dependent women, now known as ‘‘flappers,’’ were free to smoke, drink,
use contraceptives, and pursue careers. However, many viewed the flapper
as a threat to the nation’s morality who was trespassing into male arenas.
Women could now be found in both the local bar and office.
During WWI, women joined the workforce in vast numbers to fill posi-
tions left vacant by men called off to war. However, after the war, women con-
tinued to work, not out of duty to country but as a means toward
independence. Many young women now elected to work or enroll in college as
alternatives to marriage. By 1920, women made up 47 percent of college
enrollments, and the 1930 census reveals that approximately 10 million women
had entered the workforce, an increase of 29 percent from the 1910 census.
Many Americans were not comfortable with the new independent
flapper, and, as unemployment escalated during the Great Depression,
many felt that women should not be allowed to work so that men would
have more opportunities. By 1932, ‘ legislation in twenty-six states pro-
hibited married women from holding any jobs whatsoever’ (Israel 2002,
150), and a 1936 Gallup poll indicated that ‘‘82 percent of the population
thought wives should not work if their husbands had jobs and a majority
were in favour of legal restrictions’’ (Rowbotham 1997, 203).
The advancements in women’s roles gained during WWI and through
obtaining the right to vote in 1920 suffered minor but not permanent set-
backs from the 1930s Depression. As the country began to recover from
the Depression and the threat of WWII loomed, women would again be
able to assert themselves into the work place and gain even greater inde-
pendence. Heightened wartime production combined with a shortage in
the workforce attributable to the numbers of enlisted men gave women
the opportunity to work in factories in jobs that had been held previously
by men only.
S E X UA L I T Y A N D M O R A L I T Y
At the turn of the century, protective and restrictive attitudes regarding
women formalized the courting process. Respectable unmarried women
12
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
needed to be accompanied by a chaperone if she wanted to visit with a
man. If a man wanted to propose to a woman, he asked her father or male
guardian first. Physical contact before marriage was frowned on, and
women who were interested in sex were seen as deviants.
The tradition of courtship changed drastically in the 1920s. Tradition-
ally, the gentleman would ‘ call’ on a woman and spend the evening
engaged in social activities with her and her family in the parlor. The pair
would always be under the watchful eye of the girl’s parents or a chaper-
one. In the 1920s, dating replaced old-fashioned courtship rituals. Cou-
ples escaped to movies, theaters, or other social settings, sometimes alone,
sometimes with another couple. Whereas calling or courting was intended
to lead to marriage, dating was for fun, with no implication of future
commitment.
The automobile also allowed for a new-found privacy as couples
engaged in ‘ petting’’ and sexual exploration before marriage. According to
one study of college students, ‘‘…92 percent of coeds petted and a third
eventually had sexual intercourse, though usually with a fiance’ (Rowbo-
tham 1997, 168). With greater sexual freedom and activity, the market for
sex-related products increased. By 1926, condoms were available in gas
stations, drug stores, and the Sears catalog. Magazines advertised ‘‘French
Cures,’’ a euphemism for abortion, and birth control education and devi-
ces were promoted by women’s rights activists such as Margaret Sanger.
Dating as a form of social entertainment continued in the 1930s. Eco-
nomic hardship forced many couples to delay marriage. Those who did
wed did so for love and companionship rather than economic and social
standing. Finding a partner who was romantic and affectionate became
more important than finding one who was a good provider or trained in
the domestic arts.
Despite the advances during the 1920s and 1930, by the 1940s, Amer-
ica was still a very conservative society. Little girls were restricted in their
activities as to what was ‘ proper.’’ Young ladies were taught when to speak
and what was appropriate conversation. Any visible sign of affection
between a man and woman in public was discouraged. Both clothing and
activity were conservative so as not to draw attention to one’s sexuality.
G R O W I N G U P I N A M E R I C A
During the first two decades of the century, the daily life of children was
very different from what children experience today. Although most chil-
dren attended grade school, just under 11 percent of 14- to 17-year-olds
attended high school in 1900. By 1949, that figure was almost 75 percent
Growing Up in America
13
(U.S. Census Bureau 2001). Many children, some as young as 5, were
expected to work and contribute to the family’s income. Children worked
in a variety of jobs, including farm labor, sewing, operating factory ma-
chinery, selling newspapers, and shucking oysters. By the time a child
reached high school age, it was often considered foolish to waste time in
the classroom instead of earning a wage.
Although many children worked from a young age, many activists
began pushing to get children out of the factories and into classrooms.
The activists would cite the disfigurement and health risks that children
suffered in the factories. Others complained that children took employ-
ment from adults, thereby exacerbating unemployment rates. Although
the Progressives pushed for reform, the prohibition of child labor was not
set into law until the Fair Labor Standards Act was passed in 1938.
For the first time, in the 1920s and 1930s, school became the focal
point of children’s lives. Improved transportation allowed for a school bus
system. One-room school houses were replaced by centrally located con-
solidated school systems. Education became more varied and grade specific
and included lessons in hygiene as well as English, math, and history.
The decision to educate children was no longer a family decision but a
community requirement. Education was funded by community resources,
and attendance was compulsory in many states. However, the quality and
quantity of education varied greatly across the United States, depending
on the value individual communities placed on education, especially for
minorities.
School also became the primary sphere of influence in children’s social
development. Extracurricular activities became a normal part of a child’s
life. Schools sponsored after-school activities such as Boy Scouts, Girl
Scouts, drama clubs, athletic teams, and dances. Children now spent more
time with friends than family, and peer influence and peer opinions
became more important than those of family.
The economic strain
placed on many families during the Great
Depression resulted in increased divorce, desertion, and abandonment
rates. Although restrictions on divorce were eased in many states, the cost
of divorce prohibited the process. Instead, many women and children
found themselves deserted or abandoned by husbands and fathers who
could no longer face their inability to provide for their families.
In general, children were treated with more affection and regard
through the 1920s and 1930s. Child labor laws were enacted to protect
them from workplace abuse. Children were now children, not miniature
adults. A new youth culture was born, and the perennial teenage request
for the car keys began.
14
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
For the duration of the 1940s, children were to be seen and not heard.
Roles were very specific for boys and girls, and they were taught to respect
adults. Clothing was often handed down from one sibling to another and
modified from boy’s to girl’s when necessary. It was a milestone for young
boys to wear long pants. Frugality from the depression era coupled with
strong religious and ethnic influence prevented the awareness of children
as people. Mothers cooked, cleaned, mended, and cared for the family,
fathers worked hard to support the family or were absent because of the
war, and children were expected to go to school and entertain themselves.
Growing up during the war often meant living with extended families
and sharing whatever was available. Whereas adults scrimped and saved
to get by, children learned not to be wasteful and not to ask for treats or
special items.
Children were sometimes able to get odd jobs such as clearing lots
and picking vegetables, because all able-bodied men were at war. It did
not pay much, but it allowed children to help make ends meet during a
time of rationing and low wages. Boys looked forward to the opportunity
to serve their country by enlisting as soon as they came of age, whereas
girls flocked to see Humphrey Bogart at the movies and spent their week-
ends at the USO dancing with soldiers on leave to the music of Frank
Sinatra and other numbers from the Hit Parade.
Emphasis now was not only providing for the family but volunteering
for efforts to support soldiers and sailors overseas. Young women went to
work outside of the home, and traditional roles were left to grandmothers
and older siblings. Some young girls went to work as early as 15 years of
age. This provided not only income but exposure to life ‘ off of the farm.’’
Young couples delayed marriage and starting families during the
Depression, but the war changed that trend and those attitudes. Marriages
were common as men rushed off to war with the anticipation that life
would be better after the war was over. Although only single women were
employed at first, married women were soon allowed to work because so
many young brides were not starting families with their new husbands
shipped overseas. This had an impact on family life in both rural and
urban settings.
FA S H I O N
The world of fashion may have changed significantly from 1900 to 1949,
but many of these were not a linear progression but more of a series of
fits, starts, and regression. There were few true fashion designers in 1900,
Fashion
15
and only the very wealthy Americans could afford designer garments.
Most Americans wore ready-to-wear or homemade knockoffs of popular
styles. By 1949, many designers were household names and had learned
how to market their businesses through vast product lines.
In many ways, fashion was democratized during the first half of the
century. The formalness of public interaction had been simplified: women
no longer had to own morning gowns, suits, tea gowns, dinner gowns, ball
gowns, and the other situation-specific clothing. One dress could satisfy a
whole day’s worth of clothing needs. More women were able to afford de-
signer products. Although a woman might not be able to purchase a Dior
evening gown, she may be able to purchase something from his hosiery or
accessory lines.
By the end of WWII, Paris’ dominance over the fashion industry was
shared by American fashion houses. Claire McCardell and others had pio-
neered the American look, which focused on comfortable, stylish clothes
that fit the everyday life of work and leisure.
In the earliest decade of the century, homemade clothes were com-
monplace. Through 1949, the reliance of homemade clothes was gradually
overtaken by ready-to-wear clothing, but this did not mean that people
stopped making their own clothes. Sewing was still an important skill for
young women to learn. The skill came in handy during WWII. Efforts
were made to help the women at home become frugal and practical
because supplies were limited as a result of the war effort. When the War
Department restricted the amount of fabric that could be used in gar-
ments, women found ways to conserve fabric through revising existing
garments. As men went off to war, their suits were converted to ladies
suits, and McCall’s even developed patterns for transforming men’s into
ladies’ suits and ladies’ dresses into children’s clothing.
Changes in women’s fashions during and after WWI for the first time
allowed mass production techniques previously applied to men’s wear to
be applied on a wide scale to women’s wear. The simple dresses, skirts,
and blouses of the 1920s allowed for standardization in size and fit for
Mass production allowed for the rapid and inexpensive reproduction
of Paris-dictated fashions. Middle- and lower-class individuals could now
participate in fashion trends almost simultaneously with the social elite.
Social status could no longer be exclusively discerned from dress. The
new synthetic silk (rayon) provided an inexpensive substitute for real silk,
and the new synthetic dyes that provided a wide range of intense colors
both greatly reduced the cost of bringing Paris fashions to small-town
America.
16
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
During the first decades of the twentieth century, mail-order catalogs,
such as Sears, were beloved reading material in American households.
Urban and rural households alike could purchase ready-made fashions at
affordable prices. The illustrations alone helped communicate new fash-
ions to even the most remote locations.
By the 1920s, the mail-order business began to decline in popularity
with the advent of the automobile and the growth of the department
store. Although mail-order catalogs remained the primary source for
obtaining fashions for rural areas, the department store became the new
mecca for urban and suburban areas. Small boutiques were replaced by
large department stores, which offered large volume, wide selection, and a
range of price points for the entire family. Department stores began to
form chains across America, leveraging wide-scale purchasing power to
furt
her reduce retail prices.
Until the 1930s, most fashion information was disseminated through
print. Newspapers dramatically increased their reach from 3 million in
daily circulation in 1899 to 24 million by 1909. Invariably, newspapers
included advertisements from clothing and department stores that illus-
trated current fashions and enticed consumers to buy the latest in clothing
and accessories.
Fashion magazines were also an important means for communicating
fashion information from as early as 1900. Vogue, Harper’s Bazaar, and
Ladies Home Journal all found receptive audiences and saw readership
grow. Each of the magazines featured the latest advancements in fashion
through illustrations and eventually photography. They were a particularly
efficient means of disseminating fashion information across the geograph-
ically dispersed American population.
By the 1920s, these magazines had the largest impact on the general
population through the reporting and publicizing of fashion trends. Dur-
ing the 1920s and 1930s, they regularly featured the latest Paris designs as
well as the glamorous wardrobes of Hollywood starlets. By the 1940s, the
magazines provided a plethora of advice for handling the sacrifices of the
war and staying beautiful at the same time.
Teenagers became a recognized force in the forties. With the men off
to war, teenagers, both boys and girls, found employment readily available
and so had money to spend. In response to this new adolescent consumer
audience, Seventeen magazine was established in 1944 to entice teens to
make fashion purchases.
Although films gained audiences in the first three decades of the
twentieth century, they did not achieve mainstream popularity until the
1930s. During that decade, Hollywood came to have a tremendous impact
Fashion
17
on the dissemination of fashion as millions flocked to movie palaces each
week. Dictating fashion trends was no longer the exclusive prerogative of
Paris. Hollywood became a source of new fashion trends, and the Ameri-
can fashion designer was born.
The influence of movies continued through the 1940s, and they played
a prominent role in the war effort. Theaters frequently showed propaganda
films, and rationing and contributing to the war effort were frequent