whereas unemployment in the United States soared from 5 percent in the
1920s to 33 percent by 1933 (McKay 1999, 946). Despite many efforts on
the part of state and federal government, the recovery was slow and
incomplete until the advent of World War II (WWII).
Production to support the war efforts of WWII pulled the country
out of the depression. With unemployment reaching 8,120,000 of a popu-
lation of 132,122,000, the war created a way out of poverty. For many
men, military service provided a steady income, and, for the first time in
American history, women in high numbers were going outside of the
home to work. The war affected the availability of goods, as well as
changed the fabric of our society.
P O L I T I C S I N A M E R I C A
At the beginning of the century, Progressivism played a central role in the pol-
itics of America. Although the Progressive movement meant many different
things to different people, improving life for everyone was the core concept of
the movement. Most Progressives felt the government should help solve
social problems, such as labor issues, poverty, slums, and disenfranchisement.
Throughout the first two decades of the 1900s, politicians and activists
worked to resolve the labor unrest that marked the period. Violent strikes
led to government involvement, and eventually there was an improvement
in factory conditions, hours, and workers’ rights.
During the terms of Presidents Roosevelt and Taft, new laws were
enacted that expanded government control of business, immigration, and
government services. An income tax was added to pay for this new, larger
government. Citizens also gained more control of their government. The
Seventeenth Amendment allowed voters to directly elect senators, and, by
1920, women had been granted the right to vote.
During the first years of Woodrow Wilson’s first term, he focused on
similar social advancements, but his attention was divided by the turmoil
of WWI in Europe. He avoided U.S. involvement in the conflict until
1917, but he could not avoid the lasting impact that the war would have
on the country. Women entered the workplace to take the place of the
men who were off fighting the war, and the government expanded its
powers to manage the war effort.
6
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
Warren G. Harding was elected president of the United States in
1920 on a platform calling for a ‘‘return to normalcy’ after WWI, promis-
ing to reduce American involvement in international politics and focus on
domestic issues. For the first time, the federal government asserted itself
into the daily lives of its citizen through the ratification of the ratified
1919, went into effect in 1920 and ratified 1920 Amendments to the con-
stitution. Before 1920, the only exposure Americans had to the federal
government was through the postal system.
The Eighteenth Amendment made the distilling, brewing, and sale of
alcoholic beverages illegal in 1920, a prohibition not repealed until 1933.
Often ignored by the general public and law enforcement officials, the
Eighteenth Amendment did little to prevent the sale of liquor in Amer-
ica. However, the ratification of the Nineteenth Amendment, also in
1920, redefined the political landscape. Women now had the right to
vote, and the League of Women Voters worked to educate women about
politics, studied issues important to women, and influenced politicians.
President Herbert Hoover had the distinction of ushering America
through the first three years of the Great Depression, from 1929 to 1932.
Unfortunately, Hoover was unable to produce any positive changes in the
America economy, and, in 1932, the American public elected Franklin
Delano Roosevelt (FDR) and his ‘‘New Deal’ to lead the country. FDR
strove to reform capitalism to prevent another such occurrence as the
Great Depression and launched numerous government-sponsored pro-
grams designed to put Americans back to work.
The grip of the Great Depression was loosened when America entered
WWII on December 7, 1941, when the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor.
As FDR increased expenditures to mobilize the United States, unemploy-
fied 55 percent of the jobs previously held by men, allowing women and
blacks to fill them.
By 1942, the government began rationing sugar, gasoline, and coffee,
followed by rationing of meat, fat, cheese, canned goods, leather, and
shoes in 1943. Salvage drives produced millions of tons of iron, scrap
steel, and tin, all for the war effort. The War Production Board began
severely restricting the amount of yardage used in garments.
E T H N I C I T Y I N A M E R I C A
During the first decade of the century, immigrants flowed into the coun-
try, with 8,795,400 from 1901 to 1910, a majority of them coming from
Italy and the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants
Art and Entertainment
7
traveled to America’s shore from Germany, Ireland, Scandinavia, Canada,
the United Kingdom, the Caribbean, and Mexico (U.S. Bureau of Citi-
zenship and Immigration Services). During this time, the United States
added restrictions on who could immigrate to the country. WWI effec-
tively stopped mass migration to the United States.
By the end of WWI, nearly all Asian immigrants were banned from
entering the United States, and other immigrants had to demonstrate that
they were literate in their native language. These changes were the begin-
ning of additional restrictions on immigration that would emerge through
the remainder of the early 1900s.
Immigrants entered the United States but rarely assimilated. Instead, they
attempted to retain as much of their ethnic identity and cultural practices by
settling in pockets within neighborhoods, building stores, churches, and
services identical to those left behind in their native lands. This separatism,
combined with language barriers, often led to conflict and discrimination.
During WWI, more than 500,000 African Americans migrated north in
search of factory work. After the war was over, fierce competition erupted in
the north between African American and working-class whites for jobs and
economical housing. Racial tensions, once restricted to the south, now
plagued many northern urban centers, resulting in frequent race riots. Legal
segregation as well as Jim Crow laws left African Americans in isolation
without a voice to object to their situation. Activists Booker T. Washington
and W. E. B. DuBois worked to develop solutions to the racial tension and
prejudice. Other minorities had similar discrimination and poverty prob-
lems. Hispanic and Asian women were frequently relegated to domestic serv-
ice, textile mills, and industrial laundries (Rowbotham 1997, pp. 159 60).
Ethnic heritage was not worn on one’s sleeve in the 1940s. Who was
fighting with or against the Allies would determine how a recent immi-
grant was received by the community, especially in search of employment.
Ethnic neighborhoods were tolerated as long as they did not try to mingle
with mainstream society. Segregation was enforced for people of color,
although black soldiers and Native Americans gave their lives for the same
country. Although some people of lighter color would try to ‘ pass’’ and
blend in with the majority white population, there were those who were
defiant and tried to make a statement with their activities and wardrobe.
A R T A N D E N T E R TA I N M E N T
Music and dance remained prominent forms of entertainment through
the first half of the twentieth century. In the 1900s and 1910s, many
households had a piano, and people would purchase sheet music of the
8
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
popular songs. Although the radio had been invented, it was not a wide-
spread consumer item. People heard new music at concerts, dancehalls,
and in the theater.
The 1920s were often dubbed the ‘‘Jazz Age,’’ and nothing was more
important in the decade than jazz music. It dominated Broadway and
vaudeville musical theaters. Composers and song writers such as George
Gershwin, Jerome Kern, and Irving Berlin and dancers such as Josephine
Baker, Isadora Duncan, and Irene Castle helped solidify the genre for the
public.
The 1930s and 1940s were also shaped by music and dance. Young
singles and couples alike packed dancehalls for jitterbug marathons. Swing
music became the rage, and Glenn Miller’s orchestra led the trend. Ball-
room dancing also helped couples escape the bleak times of the Depres-
sion by envisioning themselves gracing the dance floor in a glamorous
gown or top hat and tails such as those donned by Ginger Rogers and
Fred Astaire in movies. During WWII, dancing was a great escape from
the war, and girls would fill the United Service Organizations (USO)
halls when the boys were home on leave or ready to ship out.
Although transatlantic radio broadcasts had been possible since 1904,
it was not until 1920 when events were broadcast through the medium to
the public. Radio not only transported the new jazz music, but it also
became a powerful tool used by politicians to influence voters. FDR regu-
larly held ‘‘fireside chats’’ via the radio to bolster support for his political
agenda during the Great Depression.
By the 1940s, radio was the lifeline for Americans, providing news,
music, and entertainment. Programming included soap operas, quiz
shows, children’s hours, mystery stories, fine drama, and sports. Families
would gather around the radio for evening entertainment. The govern-
ment relied heavily on radio for updates on the war and propaganda. The
message was clear and sent often, that it was everyone’s job to fight for
freedom and support the United States by purchasing war bonds, volun-
teering, and keeping a look out for spies.
Despite radio’s popularity, it could not compete with ‘ moving pic-
tures.’’ The first motion pictures appeared in penny arcades in the 1890s
and became the preferred form of entertainment after WWI. The United
States dominated the industry, and short, slapstick films were produced at
the rate of two or more per week (McKay 1999, 938). Soon the short
comedies evolved into longer films with story lines, many containing
social commentary. The influence of film was felt nationwide, and, by
1925, 113 million people were receiving the messages broadcast across the
silver screen on a weekly basis.
Daily Life
9
The advent of sound in films brought an entirely new dimension to
the theater experience, at a time when America needed to ‘ escape to the
movies’’ even more: the Great Depression. Escape from unemployment
and hunger could be purchased for a few cents.
The forties were the heyday for movies, but even Hollywood was
dominated by the driving force of war. The Office of War declared movies
an essential industry for morale and propaganda. Hollywood design, how-
ever, had to pass a censorship board to guard against provocative costumes
and maintain restrictions on the use of fabric and materials. Movie themes
were romantic and pro-United States, making villains of the Germans
and Japanese.
D A I LY L I F E
The Industrial Revolution that had started during the previous century
had transformed the economy and work life for most Americans. The ma-
chinery in the factories replaced skilled craftsmen. A majority of jobs called
for unskilled workers, and those who filled these jobs found themselves
easily replaced and job security a scarcity. This insecurity led to labor strife
and activism during the remainder of the first half of the century.
The mass production techniques that were perfected during WWI were
quickly applied to consumer industries. Assembly line practices were used
to manufacture everything from household goods to clothing, bringing
large quantities of goods to the mass market quickly and inexpensively.
WWI acted as a catalyst and accelerated changes in the economy and
advances in technologies. Radio, movies, telephones, airplanes, and auto-
mobiles made it easier and faster to communicate with geographically dis-
tant areas. In 1895, only four automobiles were registered, but by 1920,
the number reached more than 8 million, and by 1927 that number had
nearly doubled (McKay 1999, 251). In the first decades of the century,
motoring was seen as an exotic sport taken up by wealthy thrill-seekers. It
was not until the national highway system was improved and expanded in
the 1930s that automobiles became a popular form of transportation,
encouraging people to travel the country for vacations.
The prosperity of the 1920s meant people were working less and
socializing more. Horse races, dog races, cotillions, and society parties all
came into vogue, replacing the traditional luncheons and teas. In general,
society was more active and pursued more active interests, especially ath-
letics. Americans became more health conscious. Dieting and exercise
became popular, and a slim suntanned figure replaced the plump figure
and pale countenance of previous generations.
10
THE UNITED STATES IN 1900–1949
During the first half of the century, caring for the needs of the house-
hold was transformed through a wide variety of innovations. Prepackaged
meats and canned goods made shopping and cooking easier. Housewives
no longer had to visit the baker, butcher, produce stand, and dry goods
stores to acquire food. The new supermarket streamlined shopping, and
Betty Crocker, a fictitious homemaker invented by General Mills, taught
women how to cook nutritious and varied meals for their families. Elec-
tricity and gas became commonplace in the 1930s, illuminating homes
and powering appliances. Blenders, irons, washing machines, refrigerators,
and vacuum cleaners became modern necessities for maintaining a clean
home and healthy diet.
Whereas daily life changed and improved rapidly in cities, communica-
tion and modern conveniences were slow in
coming to rural areas. Despite
the economic hardships in both rural and urban settings during the Great
Depression, a new consumer culture was born that embraced the impor-
tance of the modern home, the motor car, exercise, and foreign travel.
During WWII, daily life experienced another shift because of the war
and scientific advances. Because money and materials were limited and
most able-bodied men were off to war, time was spent sewing, canning,
and volunteering. Although tuberculosis and polio were still feared for
their devastating crippling effects, penicillin became mass produced in
1941, reducing the number of amputees from infection after injuries and
combat wounds.
The end of the war brought a gradual return to weekend and holiday
activities. By 1947, we saw a return of ‘‘the season’ and debutante
rounds. ‘‘Society’ was back in vogue. The wealthy could once again
engage in leisure activities such as tennis and yachting without feeling
unpatriotic. As the economy began to recover, automobiles were put back
into production, and families had more opportunity to drive out to visit
friends, parks, zoos, and the beach. Family vacations and destinations
were soon to become the American way.
T H E C H A N G I N G R O L E O F W O M E N
At the beginning of the century, Victorian attitudes about women pre-
vailed. People who held these attitudes believed that women should be
protected and sheltered. The goal of women should be marriage, and they
should not work outside of the home. Divorce during this time was rare
and scandalous.
Despite these prevailing attitudes, many single women supported
themselves, and, by 1911, there were 5 million self-supporting women in
Sexuality and Morality
11
the United States (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). WWI intensified the
opportunities for these women as many men went off to fight the war. At
the same time, women were trying to redefine the Victorian attitudes that
curtailed their rights. Suffragettes fought to expand rights for women,
who did not get the right to vote until 1920. Also, women fought to get
birth control, property rights, and the ability to retain custody of their
children in the event of a divorce.