politics in relation to, 374n78
Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission, 257
Fisman, Ray, 144
Foreign Contribution (Regulation) Act, 362n27
Foreign Exchange Regulation Act, 96
foreign policy, transformation in, 339n45
forgery, 12
French, Patrick, 114
Fukuyama, Francis, 41, 310
Galanter, Marc, 218
Galla, Jayadev, 156
Gambetta, Diego, 255
Gandhi, Aditi, 50
Gandhi, Indira, 33–36, 40, 76, 83–86, 88–89, 91–92, 95–98, 100, 107, 129, 133, 355n102, 364n57
Gandhi, Mahatma, 94, 201, 217
Gandhi, Rahul, 364n57
Gandhi, Rajiv, 36, 66, 97–98, 364n57
Gandhi, Sanjay, 100, 107
Gandhi, Sonia, 65, 364n57
gangs. See caste-based gangs
Gawli, Arun, 73
Gawli, Asha, 75, 350n8
Gawli, Geeta, 75
Gill, S. S., 99
goondagiri (thuggery), 91, 114
goondaism, 203, 299, 396n61
goondas (thugs), 99, 100, 107, 146, 195–96, 202–3
governance. See institutions and governance
Gray, Obika, 300
Guha, Ramachandra, 30, 80
Gujarat, xii, 105–6
Gupta, Manoj, 207
Hansen, Thomas Blom, 93, 186, 203, 288
Hardgrave, Robert, 99
Hazare, Anna, 247–49
health system, 46
Hindu nationalism, 137, 299
Horowitz, Donald, 175
Huntington, Samuel, 48–51, 53, 85
Ibrahim, Dawood, 286
identity politics, and criminality, 212–16, 219–33
ideology, 126
political parties and, 135–37
ignorant voter hypothesis, 20, 23, 160–61, 163–66
INC. See Congress Party
incumbents, reelection of, 102
India: British legacy in, 34, 91, 338n38
as case study, 14–16
constitution of, 212, 223, 311
democracy in, 15–16, 30, 40, 310–11
economic transformation in, 34–36, 39
political transformation in, 31–34, 39
rule of law in, 261–62, 262t
social transformation in, 36–40
state-building in, xiii
state capacity of, 29–30, 39–53, 251–52, 256–61, 311
voter access to information in, 165–66. See also institutions and governance
India Against Corruption (IAC), 246–48, 250
Indian Administrative Service, 266
Indian National Congress (INC). See Congress Party
indirect elections, 211, 228–33, 382n67
information: and accountability, 162–66, 307–8
public service campaigns to disseminate, 279
transparency of, xiii, 22, 148–49, 245, 267–68, 275, 308
voter support for criminal politicians based on, 167–77, 184–86, 185f, 307–8
Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, 272
institutions and governance: bureaucracy in, 41–43, 48
citizen rights to services, 259
competence in, 259–61
corruption and, 48–49
experimentations in, 280
failure of, 20–21, 29–30, 40–53, 91–92, 251, 311
INC as preeminent among, 32
personnel in, 41, 43–47, 44f, 45f, 47f, 259–61
recommendations on, 256–61
stagnation in, 40–47. See also bureaucracy
Intelligence Bureau, 46
Internet, 52
intimidation. See coercion
iron law of oligarchy, 134–35
Italy, 164
Jaffrelot, Christophe, 218
Jamaica, 16, 300–301, 303, 304
Jana Sangh Party, 95
Janata Dal, 179, 372n60
Janata Dal (United) (JD[U]), 157, 180–81, 188, 196, 198, 374n86
Jan Lokpal bill, 246–49
Jayalalithaa, 278
JD(U). See Janata Dal (United)
Jensenius, Francesca, 146, 218–19
Jha, Prem Shankar, 87–88
judiciary, 46, 47f
justice. See courts
dispute resolution
Kapur, Devesh, 34, 38, 62, 110
Karnataka, 67–69
Karnataka High Court, 278
Karunanidhi, Kanimozhi, 60
Karunanidhi, M., 60
Kashyap, Anurag, Gangs of Wasseypur, 12
Kautilya, 53
Keefer, Phil, 126
Kejriwal, Arvind, 245–50, 264
Kenyatta, Uhuru, 16
Kerala, 94, 299
Khan, Salman, 184
Khemka, Ashok, 65–66
Kher, Kirron, 156
Khetan, Ashish, 375n91
Kochanek, Stanley, 96, 99
Koda, Madhu, 59
Kohli, Atul, 194–95
Kothari, Rajni, 32, 85
Krishna, Raj, 35
Kumar, Arun, 131–32, 141
Kumar, Nitish, 159, 180–81, 187–88, 198, 376n115
Kushwaha, Babu Singh, 240–41
land, corruption involving, 57–58, 61–62, 346n147
land reform, 187–88
Latif, Abdul, 105–6
Law Commission, 263, 266
laws, 262–63. See also rule of law
weak rule-of-law settings
Left Front, 299
legislative quotas. See reserved constituencies
legislators (MLAs): disclosure of information by, xi, 9, 148–55
effect of information on voter attitudes toward, 166
serious criminal cases against, by state, 177f
wealth correlated with electoral success of, 150–51, 151f, 153–56, 155f
wealth gains of, upon assuming office, 144–45. See also criminal politicians
License Raj, 35, 39, 42, 48, 54, 96, 251
liquor, as voting inducement, 140, 361n22
Lokpal (ombudsman), 246–50
Lok Sabha (lower house): BJP control of, ix
caste identity of MPs in, 38f
competitiveness of elections in, 129f
criminal politicians in, 8–9, 10f, 11f, 120f, 232–33, 232f
direct election of, 211, 228
early INC dominance in, 32f
electoral success in, 121f, 122f, 151, 151f, 154f
electoral violence in, 107
legislative quotas in, 213f
political parties in, 33f, 79f
Rajya Sabha compared to, 229, 232–33
size of electorate in, 128f
wealth and criminality of candidates in, 152f
Macedonia, 301
mafia groups, 75, 255
Maharashtra, 15, 58, 93
Malini, Hema, 156
malnutrition, 41
Maluf, Paulo, 16
Mandal Commission, 178–79
Manor, James, 32, 84–85, 113, 146
Mastanocracy, 93–94
mastans (gangs), 93, 356n120
Mayawati, 139, 205–8, 217, 240, 273, 377n3
media: access to, 165
corruption coverage in, 52–53
criminal politicians covered in, 12
paid news supplied by campaigns, 141–42, 389n84
social, 283
median voter model, 309
Mehta, Pratap Bhanu, 51, 57, 86–87, 136, 247–48, 267
Michels, Robert, 134
Michelutti, Lucia, 202–3
mining, 59, 67–68
MLAs. See legislators
mobile phone subscriptions, 52, 52f
modernization: corruption opportunities expanded by, 49–53
sociopolitical effects of, 49–50
Modi, Narendra, ix–x, 257, 263, 277, 280, 281–86
Mokama, 181–82, 187–89, 192, 373n72
money. See political fi
nance
Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 96
morality, as obstacle to supporting criminal politicians, 239–40
Mumbai, 58, 105
murder, 12
Muttahida Qaumi Movement, 301
Muzaffarnagar riots, 284–85, 393n23
Naik, Amar, 74
Narayan, Jayprakash, 91
Nath, Kamal, 156
National Court Management System, 266
National Democratic Alliance, 180
National Investigative Agency, 46
nationalism, 137, 299
nationalization of businesses, 96
natural resources, corruption involving, 58–59
Naxalites, 93, 106, 158
negative voting, 216
Nehru, Jawaharlal, 34, 80, 83, 91, 364n57
Nehru, Motilal, 364n57
nepotism, 135
Nigeria, 16, 299–300, 303
Nilekani, Nandan, 261
OBCs. See Other Backward Classes
Obulapuram Mining Company (OMC), 67–68
100 Laws Project, 263
other, creation of, 175
Other Backward Classes (OBCs): official recognition of, 37
political power of, 178–79
political representation of, 37–38, 218
Outlook (magazine), 142
paid news, 141–42, 389n84
Pakistan, 301–2
Pakistan People’s Party, 301
Pal, Raju, 4–5
Panagariya, Arvind, 36
Pandey, Hulas, 199
Pandey, Sunil, 198–200, 376n115
Pant, K. C., 91
parapolitics, 298
parties. See political parties
Paswan, Ram Vilas, 217
Patel, Chimanbhai, 105–6
Patel, Sardar, 201
patronage democracies, 169, 171, 230, 370n29
Paul, Samuel, 151
police: criminal groups in coordination with, 94
party control over, 92–93
personnel in, 47, 264
politicization of, 264–65
reform of, 264–65
traditional function of, 263–64
Police Act, 261
policy. See public policy
political finance, 115–56
candidate assets, 267–68
candidate expenditures, 269–70
corporate role in, 94–98, 138, 272–73
criminality linked to, 121–26, 123f, 142–55
growing influence of, 111, 305–6
illicit, 96–98, 137–42, 296–97
and land dealings, 61–62
membership dues, 95
party finances, 270–72
party gain from criminal politicians’ involvement in, 19–20
policy recommendations on, 267–74
public funding as means of, 273–74. See also campaign costs
political parties: character of Indian, 133
control of legislators by, 383n67
conversion of criminal groups into, 113
dynasties in, 135, 364n57, 364n58
elite control of, 126, 134–35, 274, 363n52, 364n57
finances of, 270–72
fundraising for, 205–8
gate-keeping role of, 123
income sought by, 19–20, 121–26, 123f, 137–42
in Lok Sabha, 33f
membership in, 133–34
organizational decline of, 85–86, 88–91, 133–34
politicians’ affiliation with, 136, 382n67
regulation of, 274–75
and reserved constituencies, 220–21
support of criminal politicians by, xi, 13, 19–20, 104, 119–26, 203–4, 240, 291
ticket distribution by, 138–39, 146, 206–7
transmission of information in/from, 274–75
voter recognition and support of, 104. See also candidate selection
politics: caste and, 37–39
land dealings and corruption in, 57–58, 61–62, 346n147
rents in, 61–64
transformation in, 31–34, 39. See also electoral politics
populace. See voters
porukkis (rowdies), 356n120
Posner, Daniel, 170
poverty, 50
Prasad, Chandra Bhan, 38
princes, 355n102
Pritchett, Lant, 41
private contractors, 260
private security, 260
public employment, 43–47, 44f, 45f, 47f, 258–61
public funding, 273–74
publicity campaigns, 141
public policy on criminality in politics: ethnic tensions, 278–80
government interest in, 255–56
institutional reform, 256–61
necessity of, 250, 252–56
political finance, 267–74
political parties, 274–75
recommendations on, xiii–xiv, 14, 21, 252, 293
restrictions on criminal politicians, 275–78
rule of law, 261–67
two-level approach to, 251
public service campaigns, 279
Quami Ekta Dal, 113
quid pro quo, 28, 62, 83, 96
quotas, legislative. See reserved constituencies
Radadiya, Vitthalbhai, 289
Raja, A., 60–61, 346nn141–43
Rajan, Raghuram, 51, 54–55, 66, 280
Rajan, Ranjeet, 6, 287
Raju, Gokaraju Ganga, 156
Rajya Sabha (upper house): candidate selection for, 230–31
criminality in, 229–33, 232f
election rules for, 382n55
indirect election of, 211, 229
Lok Sabha compared to, 229, 232–33
overview of, 228–29
reputation of, 231–33
Ram, Kanshi, 217
Ramadorai, Subramanian, 261
Ram Janmabhoomi, 286
Ranvir Sena, 113, 198, 374n86
rape, 12
Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD), 196, 200, 363n52, 372n60
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), 133, 285–86, 299
rate cards, 141–42
Ravi, Paritala, 106
Rayalaseema, Andhra Pradesh, 26
Reddy, Jagan Mohan, 28–29, 66–67, 141, 144, 287, 348n172
Reddy, Janardhana, 67–69, 287
Reddy, Karunakara, 67–69, 287
Reddy, Konda Vishweshwar, 156
Reddy, Raja, 26–27
Reddy, Vijayalakshmi, 141
Reddy, Y. S. Rajasekhara (YSR), 25–29, 66–67, 69, 287
redistribution, criminality’s role in, 172–73, 187–89
redistricting, of reserved constituencies, 223–25
regulation and deregulation, 54–57, 256–57
regulatory rents, 54–57, 96–97, 346n144
rents: earned by political parties, 124–26
extractive, 57–61
interaction of sources of, 66
political, 61–64
regulatory, 54–57, 96–97, 346n144
sources of, 30–31, 31f. See also corruption
Renuka, Butta, 156
re-polls, 108
Representation of the People Act, 95, 268, 278, 388n75, 389n84
reserved constituencies, 210–28
appeals to electorate in, 215–19
candidate selection in, 220–21
criminality in politics in relation to, 212–16, 214f, 219–28, 220f
explained, 210
general vs., 213–14
redistricting of, 223–25
Resource Raj, 59
rights to services, 259
Right to Information Act (RTI Act), 51, 245, 259, 270–71, 274
RJD. See Rashtriya Janata Dal
robbery, 12
Robin Hood, criminal politicians likened to, 20, 75, 106, 184, 289, 298
Roy, Aruna, 248
RSS. See Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
RTI Act. See Right to Information Act
Rudolph, Lloyd and Susanne, 41, 92
rule of law: courts, 265–67
India’s record on, 261–62, 262t
laws, 262–63
police, 263–65
policy recommendations on, 261–67. See also weak rule-of-law settings
Samajwadi Party, 114, 119
Samrat, Ashok, 103
Sanjay culture, 100
Santhanam Committee, 95
Sarkar, Ajit, 5
Scheduled Castes (SCs, Dalits): legislative quotas for, 210–12, 217, 223, 226–28
official recognition of, 37
political representation of, 37–39, 205–8, 217–19, 379n24
subgroups (jatis) in, 215–16
well-being of, 38
Scheduled Tribes (STs): legislative quotas for, 210, 212, 223
official recognition of, 37
subgroups (jatis) in, 215–16
Schulz, Florian, 144
secular nationalism, 137
security, 46, 260
Sen, Amartya, 163
Sen, Sukumar, 80
Seshan, T. N., 110–11, 359n172
Seventy-Fourth Amendment, 128
Seventy-Third Amendment, 128
Shah, Amit, 278–79, 283–85, 392n13, 392n15
Shahabuddin, Mohammed, 6–7
Sharan Singh, Brij Bhushan, 286
Shastri, Lal Bahadur, 83
Shiv Sena, 74–75, 93, 105, 113, 186, 203, 287–88, 377n122
Singh, Anant, 157–59, 181–95, 183f, 373n73, 374n78, 374n86, 376n115
Singh, Birachi, 158
Singh, Dilip, 158
Singh, Kamdev, 82, 352n39
Singh, N. K., 350n16
Singh, Raghuraj Pratap “Raja Bhaiya,” 63–64
Singh, Suraj Bhan, 7, 373n73
Singh, Suryadeo, 105
Singh, Uday Pratap, 63
Singh, V. P., 356n128
Sinha, Satya Narain, 200–202
Sinha, Shatrugan “Shotgun,” 156
Smith, Daniel, 300
social capital, of criminal politicians, 103, 143, 145
social insurance, criminality and the provision of, 173, 191–92, 253–54
social media, 283
social workers, 139
society: candidates and criminality in relation to divisions in, 205–41
transformation in, 36–40
Southeast Asia, 16
Spain, 296
Sridharan, E., 135, 139
Sriramulu, B., 68, 287
Subramanian, Arvind, 57
Sukhtankar, Sandip, 56–57
Supreme Court of India, 9, 102–3, 265, 266, 276–78, 284, 388n67
Suri, K. C., 86
Swatantra Party, 95, 355n102
Syndicate, 84, 88, 95
Tamil Nadu, 91
Tandulkar, Sachin, 156
Taslimuddin, 288–89
taxation, 45–46
TDP. See Telugu Desam Party
telecommunications, 59–61
Telugu Desam Party (TDP), 27, 106, 281
Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, 63, 286
Thackeray, Bal, 74, 93, 288, 377n122
Thailand, 16
Thirumangalam model, 365n79