human relatedness to, 208
inner ears of, 255
Kanapoi specimens and, 152–53
spheno-occipital synchondrosis fusion in, 298
split of human ancestors from, 63, 150, 172
teeth of, 166, 173, 235
walking and, 108, 131
China, 45, 209–10, 277
Chinese Geological Survey, 210
Choerolophodon ngorora, 94
Choeropsis liberiensis, 87
Cindy (OH 13), 218
Clarke, Ronald, 178–80
Claus, Prince (Netherlands), 118, 119
Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations (Croll), 263
climate change. See also global climate history; global climate system
habitat change and, 99–101, 103–6, 108, 160, 190, 203, 267–73, 286
human evolution and, 90, 312–13, 317–18, 322–23, 331
man-made, 323
coalescence, 325, 326, 329
Colobinae (colobines), 25–26, 28–29, 162, 189, 271
Colobus monkeys, 24–25, 28–29, 163, 189
Colton, Chris, 118–19
congenital hypothyroidism, 281
Cooke, Sacha, 113, 114, 116
Coppens, Yves, 61, 183
Cornwall, England, 12
cosmogenic nuclide dating, 174, 180
C/P3 complex, 149
crocodiles and crocodile fossils, 36, 85–86, 87, 307–8
Crocodylus cataphractus, 87
Crocodylus niloticus, 87
Croll, James, 262–64, 267
Cro-Magnons, 333
CT (computer tomography) scanning, 175, 202, 220, 234, 255, 296, 342
Cycloderma frenatum, 87
D
D2700 (skull), 289, 298, 299, 300
Dandrieux, Eduard and Laurette, 39
Daphne Major (island), 102–6
Dart, Raymond, 177–78, 215
Darwin, Charles, 102–3, 104, 207, 208
Dassenetch people, 4, 290–91
Dean, Chris, 236
Dear Boy (skull), 33–34, 57, 181–82, 183, 211, 212–13, 270
deinotheres, 95, 96, 101
Della Giustina, Giuseppe, 45
Denisovans, 284, 331, 332–33
Diagnostic Centre Kenya, 296
diet and feeding
dental adaptions and, 88, 93, 95–96, 98–101, 165, 176, 183, 185
facial shape and, 203
Galápagos finches and, 102–6
gut adaptations and, 188–90
human evolution and, 101, 106–8, 110, 164–65
living floors and, 270
omnivorous dietary strategy, 221, 272
Dinofelis, 109
diversity, early hominin, 170, 175, 192–93, 206
Djurab Desert, Chad, 174, 192
Dmanisi, Georgia, 275, 276–77, 283, 289. See also D2700 (skull)
DNA
genome sequencing, 330–31
migration of H. sapiens and, 323, 331–35
mitochondrial (mtDNA), 324–27, 333–34, 336–37
mutations in, 322, 324, 325–30, 335–40
nuclear, 324, 326, 328, 329–30, 336–37
recombination of, 329
on Y chromosome, 326–27, 329
dogs, 34–35, 242–43, 245, 246, 247, 248
Dragon Bone Hill, 209
drought, 72, 110, 128
Dubois, Eugène, 207–9, 277, 298
dwarfism, 280–81, 283–84
E
ear skeletal structure, 302. See also inner ear
earth, seasons and climate, 256–67. See also Milankovitch cycles
East Turkana, 64–65, 90, 215, 221, 270, 286
eccentricity, 258, 260, 262, 267–68
Eck, Gerald, 270
Ekuwom, Mr., 70–71
elephants
evolution of, 92–96
fossils of, 77–78, 91, 92–94, 95–96, 100, 127, 141
hominin footprints and, 134–35
near Kerio River, 157
poaching of, 55–56, 74, 100
serial tooth replacement in, 92–94, 95, 96
Elgeyo-Marakwet escarpment, 122
Eliye Springs, 304–6
El Niño, 105
empathy, 252–53
encephalization quotient (EQ), 281
endosymbiosis, 323–24
Eogavialis andrewsi, 87
EQ (encephalization quotient), 281
equinoxes, 256, 258, 259
Erus, Justus, 195, 199
Etheria elliptica (Nile oyster), 83, 84
Ethiopia, 61, 89, 133, 155–56, 171, 193, 221, 305, 309. See also Addis Ababa, Ethiopia; Afar region and language; Hadar, hominin fossils discovered at
Ethiopian Highlands, 59, 164, 184, 197–98, 262, 276
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF), 341–42
Euthecodon crocodile, 87
evolution. See also human evolution
of bovids, 41, 90, 101
climate change and, 190, 260, 268
diet and feeding and, 88, 93, 95, 96, 98–107, 110, 164–65
of Galápagos finches, 102–6
of horses, 100, 101
Lothagam fossil record and, 87–88, 90–96, 100–101
of pigs, 91–92, 100, 101
of proboscideans, 92–96, 100, 101
Explorer-in-Residence program, 323
extinction, 87–88, 90–94, 96, 346–47
eyes and balance, 254
F
false sabre-tooths, 244, 271
faunal diversity, 268–70, 286
feeding. See diet and feeding
Feibel, Craig, 62, 79–84, 129–30, 157, 261
Ferguson’s Gulf, 39
Fields, Bill, 252–53
finches, 102–6
fine-textured oozes, 263, 264, 265, 309
fingerprinting of ash layers, 61–62
fish fossils, 71, 86, 90
Flannery, Tim, 257, 310
Flat Face (skull), 199–206
Fleagle, John, 308
flexible grip, 163
Flores, Indonesia, 278–84, 330
foetal and infant development, 225–29, 232
Folgheraiter, Giuseppe, 265–66
folic acid, 338
foot, human compared to gorilla, 132
foramen magnum, 132, 149, 175, 177, 296
foraminifera, 263–64, 265, 309
forest cover reduction, 108
Fossey, Dian, 20
fossil preservation, 35, 36
France, 45
functional morphology, 16
G
Gabbra people, 290
Galápagos ground finches, 102–6
Galiano, Henry, 300
Gathogo, Patrick, 196–97, 198–99
gavials, 87
gazelles, 30, 101, 247
gelada baboons, 164–65, 184
genetic bottleneck, 326
genetic studies, 321. See also under DNA
Genographic Project (National Geographic), 323, 333
genome sequencing, 330–31
geological faults, 79, 80
Geospiza fortis, 103, 104, 105
Geospiza fuliginosa, 103
Geospiza magnirostris, 103
Germany, 307, 313
gestation periods, 225–229
gibbons, 208
giraffes and giraffe fossils, 20, 30, 91, 100, 290
glacial epochs, 163, 262, 264–65, 267–68, 278, 311–13
global climate history, 311–13
global climate system, 257–67
global warming event, 99. See also climate change
Globorotalia menardii, 264
gomphotheres, 94–96
Goodall, Vanne Morris, 17–18
gorillas, 20, 132, 133, 153, 163, 186–87, 208
GPS, 78–79
grandmothers, 225, 229–30
Grant, Peter and Rosemary, 102–4
grasping grip, 163
; grassland expansion, 108
grazers
climate change and, 106, 160, 203
dental adaptations in, 91–92, 95–96, 100–101, 165, 185
Great Ape Trust, 251, 252
Great Britain, 16
Great Rift Valley, 21, 59, 242
greenhouse gases, 312
green Sahara events, 331
Groves, Colin, 295
Guliya Glacier, Tibetan plateau, 311
gulls, 154–55
H
Hadar, hominin fossils discovered at
Homo maxilla, 193, 221
Haeckel, Ernst, 208
Haile-Selassie, Yohannes, 155–56, 173–74, 190, 204
hand morphology, 107, 161–69
haplotypes, 329–30
Harmand, Sonia, 191
Harris, John, 41, 90, 100, 133–34, 159–60
Hay, Richard, 134
Hazda people, 335
head louse, 336
head stabilization, 254–55
herbivores, 91–101, 203, 240. See also browsers; grazers
Hill, Andrew, 134
Himalayas, 277
Hippopotamus amphibius, 87
Hippopotamus protamphibius, 88
hippos and hippo fossils, 36, 42, 77, 84–85, 87–88, 90, 100
Hobbit, 280–84, 330
Hoberg, Eric, 271
Homo (genus)
cerebral rubicon for, 214–15
expanded definition for, 215
extinction of species, 257
Flat Face and, 204–5, 207
H. erectus/ergaster skulls and, 299, 302
KNM-ER 1470 brain capacity and, 216
mandible from Ledi-Geraru and, 193, 221
Mary’s fossils and, 137
maxilla found at Hadar, 193, 221
mutations in genetic code for, 330
OH 7 mandible scans and, 220
origin of, 176, 191
tapeworms and evolution of, 271
trunk stabilization in, 255
turnover-pulse hypothesis and, 194
Homo erectus. See also Turkana Boy
Asian fossils grouped as, 214
birthing in, 230, 232–34
climatic variations and, 257, 262, 268, 270, 286
dental development in, 234–37
diet of, 243–44, 245, 270, 272
Dmanisi fossils, 275, 276–77, 283, 289
first skeleton discovered, 50–53, 54
H. ergaster and, 295, 299, 300–302
H. floresiensis and, 278–79, 280, 281, 282, 283–84
H. habilis and, 220–22, 243–44, 275, 297, 299, 300, 303
H. sapiens and, 222, 237, 279, 306–7
hunting skills, 249–50, 253, 255, 336
Java Man, 208–9, 277
longevity in, 237
mandible fossils, 50, 52–53, 237
mandible fossils discovered, 50, 52–53, 237
mobility and, 241
move out of Africa, 222, 272–73, 275–78
multiregional hypothesis and, 318
mutations occurring in, 330
Neanderthals compared to, 315, 316, 320
occipital torus of skulls, 299, 301, 304
PDHA1 gene and appearance of, 330
running and, 253–55, 336
skull found at Ileret, 287–89, 342
social bonding in, 238–41, 253
tapeworms and, 271
world of, imagined, 274–75
Homo erectus/ergaster skull comparisons, 295–302
Homo ergaster, 295, 298–99, 300–302
Homo floresiensis, 280–84
Homo habilis
assignment of fossils to, 42–43, 205, 215–20
H. erectus and, 220–22, 243–44, 275, 297, 299, 300, 303
Hobbit’s foot and, 283
Homo heidelbergensis, 307, 318
Homo neanderthalensis, 63, 281, 282, 284, 313–21
Homo rhodesiensis, 307, 318
Homo rudolfensis, 219–20, 222
Homo sapiens. See also human evolution
appearance of, 64, 330
clothing acquired by, 336–37
Denisovans interbreeding with, 332–33
fossils of early forms, 304–7
fossils of modern form, 307–8
H. erectus and, 222, 237, 279, 306–7
Hobbit identity and, 281, 282, 283
hominin diversity and, 284
migration of, 323, 325–26, 332–35
Neanderthals and, 313–21, 331–33
population of, 345
skeleton compared to gorilla’s, 132
hook grip, 164
horses and horse fossils, 100, 101, 246–47
horst, 81
Howell, Clark, 61
Hughes, Alun, 178
human evolution
into bipedalism, 90, 101, 107–8, 110, 131–33, 135
climate change and, 90, 312–13, 317–18, 322–23, 331
feeding and, 101, 106–8, 110, 164–65
grandmothers and, 225, 229–30
history of earth and, 346
The Making of Mankind (film), 45
split off from apes and, 48–49, 62–64, 69, 80, 150, 172
splitters versus lumpers, 318–21
humanity, future of, 343–47
humeral torsion, 283
hunter-gatherers, 315, 332, 335
hunting
endurance running and, 245–49, 255, 336
H. erectus and, 249–50, 253, 255
hunter-gatherer languages and, 335
Neanderthals and, 316
persistence hunting, 245, 247–48, 253, 303, 316, 336
scavenging versus, 243–44
tracking skills and, 248–49
hyaenas, 34, 40–41, 161, 199, 244, 271
hyperbrowsers and hypergrazers, 101
hypervitaminosis A, 239–40
I
Iberian peninsula, 334
ice ages, 262, 267, 286, 313–15, 320
ice cores, 309–12
icehouse climate, 257, 262, 268, 312, 316
ice sheets, 309–10
Ileret, 285–92, 293–94, 306, 346
impalas, 101
indigenous peoples, 40, 335, 338–39
Indonesia, 207–9, 233, 277, 278, 300, 332
infant and foetal development, 225–29, 232
inner ear, 133, 254–55, 302, 342
interglacial epochs, 262–65, 267–68, 278, 311–13, 331
Inuit, 315, 339
Isaac, Glynn, 238
island dwarfism, 280–81, 283–84
isotopic analysis, 97–99, 165, 183–84, 265
J
Jablonski, Nina, 337–40
Japanese people, 209–10
Jaramillo normal event, 266
Java, Indonesia, 207–8, 233, 277, 278, 300
Java Man, 208–9, 277. See also Homo erectus
Johanson, Don
Hadar and Laetoli fossils and, 135–37, 152–53, 155, 171
Homo maxilla found by team, 193, 221
Lomekwi skull and, 201
Lucy discovered by, 130–31, 133–34, 138
single-lineage hypothesis and, 136–38, 171, 207
Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 239
Jonny’s Child, 215, 218, 219. See also Homo habilis
Jungers, Bill, 282–83
K
Kaatho, John, 288, 302
Kabwe, Rhodesia (now Zambia), 307
Kadanuumuu (skeleton), 138
Kaiyamung (fossil site), 78
Kalabata River, 127–28, 145, 147
Kalahari, Bushmen of, 248
Kalakol River, 192–93, 194
Kalodirr, 48
Kamba tribe, 5
Kanapoi
climate change in, 267
environment for anamensis, 157–61
geology of, 157
hominin fossils discovered at, 128–30, 137, 139–
44, 150–56, 159, 166–68
last field season at, 169
Lothagam compared to, 127–28
survey visits, 65, 125–27
Kanapoi Formation, 157
Kanapoi Tuff, 157
Kanzi (chimpanzee), 251–53
Kattwinkel, Wilhelm, 210
KBS tuff and KBS site, 31, 216–17
keeling, 299, 302
Keith, Arthur, 214, 222, 314
Kent, Geoffrey and Jorie, 121
Kenya, 19–23, 39–40, 193. See also specific locations in Kenya
Kenyanthropus (genus), 206, 221
Kenyanthropus platyops, 199–206, 207, 216
Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS), 74–75, 112–13, 115, 117–18, 121, 124, 142–43
Kerio River, 65, 84, 122, 157–58, 269
Kiarie, Christopher, 200, 201, 288
Kibish Formation, 261, 308–9
Kilaloma (vehicle), 34
Kimbel, Bill, 201, 221
Kimengich, John, 151
Kimeu, Kamoya