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Asimov's New Guide to Science

Isaac Asimov




  Asimov’s

  New Guide to Science

  ISAAC ASIMOV

  TO

  Janet Jeppson Asimov

  who shares my interest in science

  and in every other aspect of my life

  Contents

  * * *

  Preface

  Chapter 1

  What is Science? THE DESIRE TO KNOW

  THE GREEKS

  GEOMETRY AND MATHEMATICS

  THE DEDUCTIVE PROCESS

  THE RENAISSANCE AND COPERNICUS

  EXPERIMENTATION AND INDUCTION

  MODERN SCIENCE

  PART I

  The Physical Sciences

  Chapter 2

  The Universe The Size of the Universe MEASURING THE SOLAR SYSTEM

  THE FARTHER STARS

  MEASURING A STAR’S BRIGHTNESS

  DETERMINING THE GALAXY’S SIZE

  ENLARGING THE UNIVERSE

  SPIRAL GALAXIES

  CLUSTERS OF GALAXIES

  Tbe Birth of the Universe

  THE AGE OF THE EARTH

  THE SUN AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

  THE BIG BANG

  The Death of the Sun NOVAE AND SUPERNOVAE

  EVOLUTION OF THE STARS

  The Windows to the Universe THE TELESCOPE

  THE SPECTROSCOPE

  PHOTOGRAPHY

  RADIO ASTRONOMY

  LOOKING BEYOND OUR GALAXY

  The New Objects QUASARS

  NEUTRON STARS

  BLACK HOLES

  “EMPTY” SPACE

  Chapter 3

  The Solar System Birth of the Solar System

  The Sun

  The Moon MEASURING THE MOON

  GOING TO THE MOON

  ROCKETRY

  EXPLORING THE MOON

  Venus and Mercury MEASURING THE PLANETS

  THE VENUS PROBES

  THE MERCURY PROBES

  Mars MAPPING MARS

  THE MARS PROBES

  THE MARTIAN SATELLITES

  Jupiter JOVIAN SATELLITES

  JUPITER’S SHAPE AND SURFACE

  JUPITER’S SUBSTANCE

  THE JUPITER PROBES

  Saturn SATURN’S RINGS

  THE SATURNIAN SATELLITES

  The Outermost Planets URANUS

  NEPTUNE

  PLUTO

  Asteroids ASTEROIDS BEYOND MARS’S ORBIT

  EARTH GRAZERS AND APOLLO OBJECTS

  Comets

  Chapter 4

  The Earth Of Shape and Size THE EARTH AS SPHERE

  MEASURING THE GEOID

  WEIGHING THE EARTH

  Earth’s Layers EARTHQUAKES

  VOLCANOES

  FORMATION OF EARTH’S CRUST

  THE LIQUID CORE

  EARTH’S MANTLE

  THE ORIGIN OF THE MOON

  THE EARTH AS LIQUID

  The Ocean THE CURRENTS

  THE OCEAN’S RESOURCES

  THE OCEAN DEPTHS AND CONTINENTAL CHANGES

  LIFE IN THE DEEP

  DEEP-SEA DIVING

  The Icecaps THE NORTH POLE

  THE SOUTH POLE—ANTARCTICA

  THE INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICAL YEAR

  GLACIERS

  CAUSES OF ICE AGES

  Chapter 5

  The Atmosphere The Shells of Air MEASURING AIR

  AIR TRAVEL

  The Gases in Air THE LOWER ATMOSPHERE

  THE STRATOSPHERE

  THE IONOSPHERE

  Magnets MAGNETISM AND ELECTRICITY

  EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

  THE SOLAR WIND

  THE MAGNETOSPHERE

  PLANETARY MAGNETOSPHERES

  Meteors and Meteorites METEORS

  METEORITES

  Air: Keeping It and Getting It ESCAPE VELOCITY

  THE ORIGINAL ATMOSPHERE

  Chapter 6

  The Elements The Periodic Table EARLY THEORIES

  ATOMIC THEORY

  MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE

  ATOMIC NUMBERS

  Radioactive Elements IDENTIFYING THE ELEMENTS

  FINDING THE MISSING ELEMENTS

  TRANSURANIUM ELEMENTS

  SUPER-HEAVY ELEMENTS

  Electrons THE PERIODICITY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

  THE NOBLE, OR INERT, GASES

  THE RARE-EARTH ELEMENTS

  THE TRANSITIONAL ELEMENTS

  THE ACTINIDES

  Gases LIQUEFACTION

  ROCKET FUEL

  SUPERCONDUCTORS AND SUPERFLUIDS

  CRYOGENICS

  HIGH PRESSURES

  Metals IRON AND STEEL

  NEW METALS

  Chapter 7

  The Particles The Nuclear Atom IDENTIFYING THE PARTICLES

  THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS

  Isotopes UNIFORM BUILDING BLOCKS

  TRACKING PARTICLES

  TRANSMUTATION OF ELEMENTS

  New Particles THE NEUTRON

  THE POSITRON

  RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS

  PARTICLE ACCELERATORS

  PARTICLE SPIN

  COSMIC RAYS

  THE STRUCTURE OF THE NUCLEUS

  Leptons NEUTRINOS AND ANTINEUTRINOS

  TRACKING DOWN THE NEUTRINO

  NUCLEAR INTERACTION

  THE MUON

  THE TAUON

  THE NEUTRINO’S MASS

  Hadrons and Quarks PIONS AND MESONS

  BARYONS

  THE QUARK THEORY

  Fields ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERACTION

  THE CONSERVATION LAWS

  A UNIFIED FIELD THEORY

  Chapter 8

  The Waves Light THE NATURE OF LIGHT

  THE SPEED OF LIGHT

  RADAR

  LIGHT-WAVES THROUGH SPACE

  THE MAGNETIC MONOPOLES

  ABSOLUTE MOTION

  Relativity THE LORENTZ-FITZGERALD EQUATIONS

  RADIATION AND PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

  EINSTEIN’S PARTICLE-WAVE THEORY

  THE THEORY OF RELATIVITY

  SPACE-TIME AND THE CLOCK PARADOX

  GRAVITY AND EINSTEIN’S GENERAL THEORY

  TESTING THE GENERAL THEORY

  Heat MEASURING TEMPERATURE

  TWO THEORIES OF HEAT

  HEAT AS ENERGY

  HEAT AND MOLECULAR MOTION

  Mass to Energy

  Particles and Waves ELECTRON MICROSCOPY

  ELECTRONS AS WAYES

  THE UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE

  Chapter 9

  The Machine Fire and Steam EARLY TECHNOLOGY

  THE STEAM ENGINE

  Electricity STATIC ELECTRICITY

  DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY

  GENERATING ELECTRICITY

  EARLY APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO TECHNOLOGY

  Electrical Technology THE TELEPHONE

  RECORDING SOUND

  ARTIFICIAL LIGHT BEFORE ELECTRICITY

  ELECTRIC LIGHT

  PHOTOGRAPHY

  Internal-Combustion Engines THE AUTOMOBILE

  THE AIRPLANE

  Electronics THE RADIO

  TELEVISION

  THE TRANSISTOR

  Masers and Lasers MASERS

  LASERS

  Chapter 10

  The Reactor Energy COAL AND OIL: FOSSIL FUELS

  SOLAR ENERGY

  The Nucleus in War THE DISCOVERY OF FISSION

  THE CHAIN REACTION

  THE FIRST ATOMIC PILE

  THE NUCLEAR AGE

  THE THERMONUCLEAR REACTION

  The Nucleus in Peace NUCLEAR-POWERED VESSELS

  NUCLEAR REACTORS FOR ELECTRIC POWER

  BREEDER REACTORS

  THE DANGERS OF RADIATION

  USING FISSION PRODUCTS

  FALLOUT

  Controlled Nuclear Fusion

/>   PART II

  The Biological Sciences

  Chapter 11

  The Molecule Organic Matter CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

  The Details of Structure OPTICAL ACTIVITY

  THE PARADOX OF THE BENZENE RING

  Organic Synthesis THE FIRST SYNTHESIS

  ALKALOIDS AND PAIN DEADENERS

  THE PROTOPORPHYRINS

  NEW PROCESSES

  Polymers and Plastics CONDENSATION AND GLUCOSE

  CRYSTALLINE AND AMORPHOUS POLYMERS

  CELLULOSE AND EXPLOSIVES

  PLASTICS AND CELLULOID

  HIGH POLYMERS

  GLASS AND SILICONE

  Synthetic Fibers

  Synthetic Rubber

  Chapter 12

  The Proteins Amino Acids THE COLLOIDS

  THE POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS

  PROTEINS IN SOLUTION

  BREAKING DOWN A PROTEIN MOLECULE

  ANALYZING THE PEPTIDE CHAIN

  SYNTHETIC PROTEINS

  THE SHAPE OF THE PROTEIN MOLECULE

  Enzymes CATALYSIS

  FERMENTATION

  PROTEIN CATALYSTS

  ENZYME ACTION

  Metabolism THE CONVERSION OF SUGAR TO ETHYL ALCOHOL

  METABOLIC ENERGY

  THE METABOLISM OF FATS

  Tracers CHOLESTEROL

  THE PORPHYRIN RING OF HEME

  Photosynthesis THE PROCESS

  CHLOROPHYLL

  Chapter 13

  The Cell Chromosomes CELL THEORY

  ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

  Genes MENDELIAN THEORY

  GENETIC INHERITANCE

  CROSSING OVER

  THE GENETIC LOAD

  BLOOD TYPES

  EUGENICS

  CHEMICAL GENETICS

  ABNORMAL HEMOGLOBIN

  METABOLIC ABNORMALITY

  Nucleic Acids GENERAL STRUCTURE

  DNA

  THE DOUBLE HELIX

  GENE ACTIVITY

  The Origin of Life EARLY THEORIES

  CHEMICAL EVOLUTION

  THE FIRST CELLS

  ANIMAL CELLS

  Life in Other Worlds

  Chapter 14

  The Microorganisms Bacteria MAGNIFYING DEVICES

  NAMING THE BACTERIA

  THE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE

  IDENTIFYING BACTERIA

  Chemotherapy SULFA DRUGS

  THE ANTIBIOTICS

  RESISTANT BACTERIA

  PESTICIDES

  HOW CHEMOTHERAPY WORKS

  BENEFICENT BACTERIA

  Viruses NONBACTERIAL DISEASE

  SUBBACTERIA

  THE ROLE OF NUCLEIC ACID

  Immune Reactions SMALLPOX

  VACCINES

  ANTIBODIES

  Cancer THE EFFECTS OF RADIATION

  MUTAGENS AND ONCOGENES

  THE VIRUS THEORY

  POSSIBLE CURES

  Chapter 15

  The Body Food THE ORGANIC FOODS

  PROTEINS

  FATS

  Vitamins DEFICIENCY DISEASES

  ISOLATING VITAMINS

  CHEMICAL COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE

  VITAMIN THERAPY

  VITAMINS AS ENZYMES

  VITAMIN A

  Minerals COBALT

  IODINE

  FLUORIDES

  Hormones INSULIN AND DIABETES

  THE STEROID HORMONES

  THE PITUITARY AND THE PINEAL GLANDS

  THE ROLE OF THE BRAIN

  THE PROSTAGLANDINS

  HORMONE ACTION

  Death ATHEROSCLEROSIS

  OLD AGE

  Chapter 16

  The Species Varieties of Life CLASSIFICATION

  THE VERTEBRATES

  Evolution EARLY THEORIES

  DARWIN’S THEORY

  OPPOSITION TO THE THEORY

  EVIDENCE FOR THE THEORY

  The Course of Evolution ERAS AND AGES

  BIOCHEMICAL CHANGES

  RATE OF EVOLUTION

  The Descent of Man EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

  THE STONE AGE

  HOMINIDS

  PILTDOWN MAN

  RACIAL DIFFERENCES

  BLOOD GROUPS AND RACE

  Humanity’s Future THE POPULATION EXPLOSION

  LIVING IN THE SEA

  SETTLING IN SPACE

  Chapter 17

  The Mind The Nervous System NERVE CELLS

  BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

  THE HUMAN BRAIN

  INTELLIGENCE TESTING

  THE SPECIALIZATION OF FUNCTIONS

  THE SPINAL CORD

  Nerve Action REFLEX ACTION

  ELECTRICAL IMPULSES

  Human Behavior CONDITIONED RESPONSES

  THE BIOLOGICAL CLOCK

  PROBING HUMAN BEHAVIOR

  DRUG USE

  MEMORY

  Automatons FEEDBACK

  EARLY AUTOMATION

  ARITHMETICAL CALCULATIONS

  CALCULATING MACHINES

  Artificial Intelligence ELECTRONIC COMPUTERS

  ROBOTS

  Appendix: Mathematics in Science Gravitation THE FIRST LAW OF MOTION

  THE SECOND AND THIRD LAWS

  Relativity THE MICHELSON-MORLEY EXPERIMENT

  THE FITZGERALD EQUATION

  THE LORENTZ EQUATION

  EINSTEIN’S EQUATION

  Illustrations I. The Solar System

  II. Earth and Space Travel

  III. Aspects of Technology

  IV. Aspects of Evolution

  Bibliography

  Preface

  The rapid advance of science is exciting and exhilarating to anyone who is fascinated by the unconquerability of the human spirit and by the continuing efficacy of the scientific method as a tool for penetrating the complexities of the universe.

  But what if one is also dedicated to keeping up with every phase of scientific advance for the deliberate purpose of interpreting that advance for the general public? For that person, the excitement and exhilaration is tempered by a kind of despair.

  Science will not stand still. It is a panorama that subtly dissolves and changes even while we watch. It cannot be caught in its every detail at any one moment of time without leaving us behind at once.

  In 1960, The Intelligent Man’s Guide to Science was published; and at once, the advance of science flowed past it. In order to consider quasars and lasers, for instance (which were unknown in 1960 and household words a couple of years later), The New Intelligent Man s Guide to Science was published in 1965.

  But still science drove on inexorably. Now there came the question of pulsars, of black holes, of continental drift, men on the moon, REM sleep, gravitational waves, holography, cyclic—AMP, and so forth—all post-1965.

  So it was time for a new edition, the third. And what did we call it? The New New Intelligent Man’s Guide to Science? Obviously not. The third edition was named, straightforwardly, Asimov’s Guide to Science and was published in 1972.

  And still science refused to stop. Enough was learned of the solar system, thanks to our probes, to require an entire chapter. And now we have the new inflationary universe, new theories on the end of the dinosaurs, on quarks, gluons, as welI as unified field theories, magnetic monopoles, the energy crisis, home computers, robots, punctuated evolution, oncogenes, and on, and on, and on.

  So it is time for another new edition, the fourth; and since for each edition, I always change the name, I shall do so again. It is now Asimov’s New Guide to Science.

  ISAAC ASIMOV

  New York

  1984

  Chapter 1

  * * *

  What is Science?

  Almost in the beginning was curiosity.

  Curiosity, the overwhelming desire to know, is not characteristic of dead matter. Nor does it seem to be characteristic of some forms of living organism, which, for that very reason, we can scarcely bring ourselves to consider alive.

  A tree does not display curiosity about its environment in any way we can recognize; nor does a sponge or an oyste
r. The wind, the rain, the ocean currents bring them what is needful, and from it they take what they can. If the chance of events is such as to bring them fire, poison, predators, or parasites, they die as stoically and as undemonstratively as they lived .

  Early in the scheme of life, however, independent motion was developed by some organisms. It meant a tremendous advance in their control of the environment. A moving organism no longer had to wait in stolid rigidity for food to come its way, but went out after it.

  Thus, adventure entered the world—and curiosity. The individual that hesitated in the competitive hunt for food, that was overly conservative in its investigation, starved. Early on, curiosity concerning the environment was enforced as the price of survival.