Knox, Tom, 174, 245n–46n
Kokko, Hanna, 42
Kranton, Rachel, 159
Kristof, Nicholas, 152
!Kung-San, 210n, 211n
labia, 85
Laden, Greg, 50, 68, 71, 216n
langur monkeys, female promiscuity in, 38
Latvia, 211n
Leeds, University of, 69
Lehman Brothers, 151
leks, 37–38, 207n
Liben, Lynn, 87, 204n
“likes attract” model, in mating strategies, 74, 75, 217n
Lily (author’s friend), 46–47, 62
Lippa, 211n, 212n
Lisbon University, 141
Live Science, 100
Los Andes, University of, 157
Maasai, 125, 156
macaque monkeys, 44
Macquarie University, 20, 65
Macrae, Neil, 193
Maestripieri, Dario, 94
males, 15
aggressiveness of, 102–3
biological investment in children of, 14–15, 32–33, 42, 47–48
caregiving by, 43, 44, 144, 145–46
choosiness in, 40–41
human, penis bone absent in, 68
risk taking by, 108–11
sexual displays by, 30–31
sexual double standards for, 56–58
Manchester Business School, 17
Maner, Jon, 109–10
Mapuche, 156, 158, 163
marketing, of toys, gender-specific, 174–76, 181, 192–93, 245n–46n
Marks, Jonathan, 64, 65
marmoset monkeys, testosterone response in, 142
Maserati, 29, 34, 45, 178
Massachusetts, University of, at Boston, 61, 94, 116
maternal grooming, of male rat pups, 96–97, 185, 187
mating strategies:
gift giving in, 63–64
physical attractiveness and, 71–72, 74, 75, 217n
“potentials attract” vs. “likes attract” models of, 74, 75, 217n
received wisdom about, 71–73
social arrangements in, 44
youthfulness and, 75
see also reproductive success
Max Planck Institute, 91
Max Planck Institute for Human Development, 123
Mazur, Allan, 232n, 235n–36n
McCarthy, Margaret, 89
McElreath, Richard, 156
Meier-Pesti, Katja, 160–61
Melbourne, Australia, 46
Melbourne, University of, 41, 189
Melbourne Cup, 171
men, see males
Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus (Gray), 18
Men Are Like Waffles—Women Are Like Spaghetti (Farrel and Farrel), 18
“Men’s and Women’s Personalities: World Apart or Not So Different?” (Live Science article), 100
meta-analyses, of behaviour and sex differences, 101, 105
Meynell, Letitia, 191
Michigan, University of, 56, 130
Miles, Catherine, 83
Minnesota, University of, 60, 205n
Mismeasure of Woman, The (Tavris), 78
Missouri–St. Louis, University of, 33
Money, John, 204n
Mongol empire, 109
monogamy, and male reproductive success, 47–52, 54
moods, hormones and, 94
Moore, Celia, 94, 96
Morocco, 211n
Mosuo, 157
Move Up (Rapaille and Roemer), 83
Murawski, Carsten, 210n
mutations, 31–32
My Fair Lady (musical), 84
National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles, British (NATSAL), 53–54, 215n–16n
natural selection, 15, 22, 29–30, 97, 185
Nature, 30, 106
Nazis, 64
Nelson, Julie, 116, 119, 153, 154, 155, 162–63, 169–70
neural pathways:
social information and, 141–42
testosterone and, 135–36
neurons, 136
neurotransmitters, 136
“New Study Confirms That Men’s Minds Come from Mars and Women’s from Venus” (Maestripieri), 94
New York Times, 152
New Zealand, 225n
Nipissing University, 148
North Carolina, University of, at Charlotte, 64
Notre Dame, University of, 51, 144
nurturance, see caregiving
Oakley, Ann, 204n
Occidental College, 95
oestrogen receptors, social information and expression of, 142
oestrogens, 19, 94, 134, 136
Oliveira, Gonçalo, 147
Oliveira, Rui, 141, 142, 147, 233n
Oster, 97
O’Toole, Emer, 57
ovaries, 85, 134, 140
development of, 84
Pagel, Mark, 99, 178, 180
Paleofantasy: What Evolution Really Tells Us about Sex, Diet, and How We Live (Zuk), 60–61
Pankhurst, Emmeline, 173
Papua New Guinea, 103
parents:
caregiving by, see caregiving
unequal biological investment in children of, 14–15, 32–33, 42, 47–48
Pawłowski, B., 230n
Payne, Michelle, 171
penis, 68, 85
Penn State University, 87
Penz, Elfriede, 160–61
personality traits, see behaviour
Petit, Philippe, 114
Pew Research Center, 102
Philippines, 144
physical attractiveness, mating strategies and, 71–72, 74, 75
Pictionary, 66, 67
Pinkerton, Steven, 66
pleasure, sexual behaviour and, 66, 69, 78
political correctness, 174, 176
polyandry, 60–61, 214n
“potentials attract” model, in mating strategies, 74, 75, 217n
power, displays of, 17, 19, 20, 51, 60, 76, 105, 119, 146
primates:
female competitiveness in, 39–40
female promiscuity in, 37
male paternal care in, 43
sexual behaviour in, 140
progesterones, 94
promiscuity, 15, 19, 26, 32, 87, 204n, 205n, 218n
of females, 35–40
in male reproductive success, 32–33, 35–37, 47–52, 54
of males, 32–33, 35–37
prostate, 85
prostitution, 215n
and desire for intimacy, 69–70, 216n
psychological well-being, 100
Psychology Today, 94
Rady Business Journal, 109
Rajasthan, 38
Rapaille, Clotaire, 83
rats:
brain sex differences in, 90–91
male, maternal grooming of, 96–97, 185, 187
Rawn, Catherine, 120
Reinhard, Marc-André, 161
Reis, Harry, 101–2, 225n
reproductive success, 14, 16, 216n
biological expense of, 67
“likes attract” vs. “potentials attract” models of, 74, 75, 217n
as only one aspect of human sexuality, 65, 67, 71, 84
see also mating strategies
reproductive success, female:
choosiness and, 32, 35, 43, 207n
competitiveness in, 39, 43
promiscuity and, 35–40
status and material resources in, 72–74
variation in, 39
youthfulness and, 20, 62, 71, 110
reproductive success, male:
and availability of suitable females, 48–49
choosiness and, 40–41
competitiveness and, 33–34, 37, 48–49, 123, 164–65
leks and, 37–38, 207n
monogamy and, 47–52, 54
promiscuity and, 32–33, 35–37, 47–52, 54
risk taking and, 109–10, 125, 152, 164–65
sexual displays and, 30–31
&
nbsp; status seeking and, 20, 164
testosterone and, 19
unrealistic assumptions about, 51–52, 177–78, 209n–10n
variation in, 31, 32, 33, 35, 51
youthfulness and, 71
rhesus monkeys, 140, 185–86
Richardson, Sarah, 84
risk aversion, 152–53, 168–69, 240n
as general human tendency, 113
risk taking, 15, 19–20, 21, 23, 178
in adolescents, 165
attractiveness of, to potential mates, 122–23, 230n, 231n
changeable patterns of, 115–16
competitiveness and, 110, 226n
cost-benefit ratio in, 113, 119, 121, 127
cultural context and, 126, 127
evolution and, 109–10, 122–23, 125, 152
experience and, 165, 166, 167
by females, 110, 115, 116–17, 126, 127
knowledge of field and, 113–14, 117, 155
lack of correlation across domains in, 112–13, 227n
and male reproductive success, 109–10, 125, 152, 164–65
male vs. female attitudes towards, 115
meta-analysis of, 115
reputational benefits in, 121–22, 158–59
seen as stable personality trait, 111–12, 126, 164, 165
sexually stereotyped assumptions about nature of, 116–17, 119–20, 153
social norms and, 120–22, 155, 159
socio-environmental context and, 117–19, 120
stereotype threat and, 159–60
subjectivity in, 113–15, 119, 120, 126, 228n
testosterone and, 165–69
“white male effect” and, 118–20
risk taking, financial, 112, 117, 122, 125, 151–70, 239n, 240n
confirmation bias in studies of, 154–55, 162–63
cultural influence on, 156–57
digit ratio and, 163–64, 165–66
“lottery” vs. real-world studies of, 153–54, 156
sexual stereotyping in studies of, 154, 162
social norms and, 162, 163
stake size and, 158–59
subjectivity in, 227n
as supposedly masculine trait, 163, 241n
testosterone and, 163–69, 243n, 244n
unknown odds and, 157–58
wealth resources and, 155
see also finance industry
Rochester, University of, 101
Roemer, Andrés, 83
roosters, testosterone and, 133–34
Rubel, T., 224n
Rutgers University, 77
Ryan, C., 211–12n
Ryan, Michelle, 121, 168
Ryder, Brandt, 35
Saad, Gad, 175
St. Andrew’s Cross spider, 41
St. Andrew’s, University of, 51
Sanchez, Diana, 77
Sanders, Teela, 69–70
Sangu, 156, 158, 163
Sapolsky, Robert, 133
Schapiro, Mary, 152
Schmitt, David, 47, 48, 52, 209n, 210n, 211n, 212n, 218n
Schwartz, S. H., 224n
secondary sexual characteristics, 134, 137–38
self-reporting bias, 52
seminal vesicles, 85
sensation seeking, 165, 242n
sex, biological:
dimorphism in, 95
education and, 17–18
essentialist view of, 21, 107, 111, 113, 126, 132, 162, 188, 189
as primary social category, 14, 88–89, 182, 201n
received wisdom about, 14–24
toys and, 17, 21, 173–76, 181, 182–84, 188, 192–93, 245n–46n
use of term, 25–26, 204n
workplace and, 18, 19, 21, 102–3, 110–11, 120–21, 124, 126–27, 129, 149–50, 189, 192, 193
see also gender
sex, biological, determination of, 83–88
as complex process, 86
intersex individuals and, 85–86
traditional view of, 84–85
X chromosome in, 84–87
Y chromosome in, 84–87
sex equality, 193–95
benefits of, 194–95
sex differences and, 21
in workplace, 18, 19, 21, 102–3, 110–11, 120–21, 124, 126–27, 129, 149–50, 189, 192, 193
Sex and Personality (Terman and Miles), 83
Sex, Gender, and Society (Oakley), 204n
Sex/Gender: Biology in a Social World (Fausto-Sterling), 95–96
sex roles, 193
colour coding and, 173–74, 182, 183, 192, 193
cultural context and, 178, 183
in hunter-gatherer societies, 100
merging of, 190
traditional view of, 174–77
variation in, 44, 61–62, 177, 178
see also behaviour, sex differences in
sexual behavior, 52–60
ability to mate vs. sexual motivation in, 139–40
blurring of male and female roles in, 190
commercial, see prostitution
emotional relationships and, 69
hormones and, 139–41
pleasure and, 66, 69, 78
self-reporting bias and, 52
social arrangements and, 44, 60–62
social context and, 140
testosterone suppression and, 140–41
see also casual sex; sexuality, human
sexual displays, 30–31
sexual harassment, 126–27
sexuality, human:
as bio-cultural continuum, 65, 76, 78–79, 84, 144–45, 177–78
“long, slow revolution” in, 65–66, 76–77
non-reproductive uses of, 65–79, 177
of women, see women, sexuality of sexual selection, 15, 17, 29–30, 65, 164, 178, 201n
Bateman’s experiments and, 29, 31–32, 33–36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 48, 60, 61, 137, 177, 205n, 206n
intra- vs. intersexual, 109–10
maternal grooming and, 96–97, 185, 187
received wisdom about, 22–23
socio-environmental influences on, 62, 87
traditional view of, 84
sexual stereotyping, 86, 150, 173–74, 184, 192–93
finance industry and, 152, 244n
Shors, Tracey, 91
Shuar, 72
Smiler, Andrew, 52, 69
Snyder, Brian, 34–35, 36, 206n
social arrangements, sexual behaviour and, 44, 60–62
social context:
adaptation and, 185–88
androgen levels and, 141, 143
biological sex as primary category in, 14, 88–89, 182, 201n
division of labour by sex in, 99–100
gene expression and, 142
gonads and, 131
hormones and, 149
testosterone and, 141, 143, 144–45, 167, 179–80
social norms:
gender differences in, 120–21, 180–81, 192
risk taking and, 120–22, 155, 159, 162, 163
Sommers, Christina Hoff, 174
songbirds, brain sex differences in, 95–96
South Florida, University of, 161
speed dating, as research tool, 75
sperm, biological cost of, 40–41
spinal cord, sex differences in, 93
SRY gene, 84, 86
status, 150, 152
challenges to, 148–49
status seeking, 20, 21, 34, 54, 164–65, 232n
STEM fields:
gender gap in, 15–16, 21
stereotype threat and, 159
stereotype threat, 189
in financial risk taking, 159–60
steroid receptors, 136
steroids, 136
Stewart-Williams, Steve, 78–79, 225n
Stoet, Gijsbert, 15–16, 21
Stone Age, 125, 152, 186
stress, and brain sex differences, 90–91
Sunday Express,
175
Sunstein, Cass, 117, 120, 121, 159
Swansea University, 225n
Sweden, 118–19, 120, 157
swordfish, testosterone and, 135
Sydney, University of, 97
Sylwester, K., 230n
talapoin monkeys, 139
Tang-Martínez, Zuleyma, 33, 35–36, 214n
Tanzania, 62, 125, 144, 156, 158
Tavris, Carol, 78, 177
Tel Aviv University, 85, 91
Terman, Lewis, 83
testes, 13–15, 85, 86, 134, 140
development of, 84
testosterone, 84
aggression and, 148
average sex differences in levels of, 137, 234n, 235n
behavior and, 133–34, 138–50
brain and, 89, 135–37, 165
caregiving and, 130, 143, 144, 145, 232n
competitiveness and, 129–31, 143–44, 146–47, 168, 232n, 237n
complex functions of, 142–43, 233n
in conversion to oestrogen, 136
experience and, 165, 166, 167
in females, 137, 138, 143, 146, 166, 168, 203n
finance industry and, 20, 151–52, 167–70
financial risk taking and, 163–69, 243n, 244n
function of, 134–35
gene expression and, 136
in H. burtoni cichlids, 139
male prenatal surge in, 19, 137–38
prenatal, 163–64
in “remove-and-replace” experiments, 133–34
risk taking and, 165–69
secondary sexual characteristics and, 137–38
social context and, 141, 143, 144–45, 167, 179–80
traditional view of, 18–19, 21–22, 23, 89, 128–29, 138, 142, 151–52, 164, 181, 232n
variable levels of, 143–46, 180, 237n
“winner effect” and, 167, 168
Testosterone: Sex, Power, and the Will to Win (Herbert), 19, 129, 149, 151
Thomas, Andrew, 78–79, 225n
Time, 152
Toronto, University of, 94
toys:
biological sex and, 17, 173–76, 181, 182–84, 188, 192–93, 245n–46n
infants and, 181–82
Trivers, Robert, 32–34, 42
Trouble with Testosterone, The (Sapolsky), 133
Trump, Donald, 94
Twitter, 89
two-spotted goby fish, 43–44
typicalness, of traits, 188–89
Ukraine, 211n
vagina, 85
Vagina: A New Biography (Wolf), 68
Valian, Virginia, 103–4, 106
van Anders, Sari, 130, 138, 144–45, 146, 232n, 234n
Vassilyev, Feodor, 47
Victoria, Australia, police in, 126
Victorian Equal Opportunity and Human Rights Commission, 126
Victorian era, sexual repression of women in, 76–77
Vlaev, Ivo, 156
Vohs, Kathleen, 120
Volvo, 17, 104, 105
Wade, Lisa, 95, 149
Wake Forest University, 52
Wallen, Kim, 140, 235n
Wall Street, see finance industry
Warren, Elizabeth, 152
Warwick Business School, 156
Washburn, Linda, 86