56. England, P. (2010). The gender revolution: Uneven and stalled. Gender and Society, 24(2), 149–166.
57. Jordan-Young (2010), ibid. Quoted on p. 130.
58. Chiang, O. (January 7, 2011). Trojan: US market size for vibrators $1 billion, twice the condom market size. Forbes. Retrieved from http://www.forbes.com/sites/oliverchiang/2011/01/07/trojan-us-market-size-for-vibrators-1-billon-twice-the-condom-market-size/ on January 8, 2015.
59. Jordan-Young (2010), ibid. Quoted on p. 113.
60. Meynell, L. (2008). The power and promise of developmental systems theory. Les Ateliers de L’Éthique, 3(2), 88–103. Quoted on p. 97, emphasis added.
61. McCormack, F. (June 24, 2015) How to prevent violence against women. Featured on Big Ideas. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/bigideas/fiona-mccormack-preventing-violence-against-women-in-australia/6552078 on June 27, 2015. See also Flood, M., & Pease, B. (2009). Factors influencing attitudes to violence against women. Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 10(2), 125–142.
62. Ireland, J. (November 25, 2015). Greens get Senate inquiry to look into the link between Barbies, toys and domestic violence. Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from http://www.smh.com.au/federal-politics/political-news/greens-link-barbies-trucks-and-childhood-toys-to-domestic-violence-in-call-for-gender-inquiry-20151124-gl716h.html on November 26, 2015.
63. Bigler, R., & Liben, L. (2007). Developmental intergroup theory: Explaining and reducing children’s social stereotyping and prejudice. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(3), 162–166; Patterson, M., & Bigler, R. (2006). Pre-school children’s attention to environmental messages about groups: Social categorization and the origins of intergroup bias. Child Development, 77(4), 847–860.
64. Glick, P., Lameiras, M., Fiske, S. T., Eckes, T., Masser, B., Volpato, C., et al. (2004). Bad but bold: Ambivalent attitudes toward men predict gender inequality in 16 nations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(5), 713–728.
65. For a comprehensive review, see Rudman, L., & Glick, P. (2008). The social psychology of gender: How power and intimacy shape gender relations. New York: Guilford Press.
66. Halim, M., Ruble, D., & Amodio, D. (2011). From pink frilly dresses to “one of the boys”: A social-cognitive analysis of gender identity development and gender bias. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(11), 933–949.
67. Cunningham, S. J., & Macrae, C. N. (2011). The colour of gender stereotyping. British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 598–614. Quoted on p. 610.
68. See Roberts, Y. (September 13, 2015). Yet again men hold power. Why can’t Labour change? The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/sep/13/women-politics-power-labour-leadership-jeremy-corbyn on September 14, 2015.
INDEX
_____
Abramson, Paul, 66
adaptation:
environment and, 186–87
evolution and, 184–88, 189
adaptation, human, 23, 98–99, 100, 180
developmental systems and, 186, 188–91
seen as fixed and typical, 188–90
social context and, 185–88
Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi, 11
Adkins-Regan, Elizabeth, 128, 131–32, 135, 136, 138
adolescents, risk taking in, 165
adrenal glands, 134
African forest weaver birds, 95
aggression, 165
in females, 102–3, 132
as “masculine” trait, 102–3
testosterone and, 148
Ah-King, Malin, 44
Ahnesjö, Ingrid, 44
Akerlof, George, 159
androgen receptors, social information and expression, 142
androgens, 84, 85, 134, 181
social context and, 141, 143
Annis, Barbara, 18
Antechinus mouse, 41
“Ape That Thought It Was a Peacock, The” (Stewart-Williams and Thomas), 78–79
Arnold, Arthur, 89
aromatase, 136
Atlantic, 174
Attitude Interest Analysis Survey, 104
attractiveness, physical, mating strategies and, 71–72, 74, 75
Austen, Jane, 72
Australia, 126, 176, 192, 225n
Austria, 125
Bair, Sheila, 152
Baker, Michael, Jr., 109–10
Balloon Analogue Risk Task, 157–58, 166, 244n
Barnard College, 183
Bateman, Angus, 29, 31–32, 33–36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 48, 60, 61, 137, 177, 205n, 206n
BBC Internet, 211n
Beck, Glenn, 118
behaviour:
biosocial model of, 232n, 235n–36n
flexibility in, 233n–34n
hormones and, 133, 138–50
masculine-feminine polarity assumption in, 104–5
“masculine” vs. “feminine” traits in, 102–5, 225n
as mosaic of traits, 105–6, 107, 165, 179
testosterone and, 133–34, 138–50
“thing”-oriented vs. “people”-oriented, 103–4
behaviour, sex differences in, 137
current research on, 101–2
developmental system in, 188–91
division of labour and, 99–100
evolution and, 87, 184–85
gender similarities hypothesis and, 100–101
meta-analyses of, 101, 105
seen as “innate,” 188
traditional view of, 107, 174–75, 179, 181, 188, 195
see also brain, sex differences in; sex roles; specific behaviours
Berthold, Arnold, 133–34
Bic, 97
Binghampton University, 160
“Biological Big Picture,” 14–15, 22
birth control, women’s sexuality and, 76–77
Booth, Alan, 232n
Bradley University, 47
brain:
oestrogen produced by, 136
testosterone and, 89, 135–37, 165
brain, sex differences in, 17, 220n
developmental system and, 186, 234n
epigenetics and, 89–90, 96, 234n
evolution and, 15–16, 22, 87
gene expression and, 95–96
genitals compared to, 88–89, 92
hormones and, 89–90, 94
“male-end” vs. “female-end” zones in, 91–92
possible compensating function of, 94–95, 137, 179
in rats, 90–91
in songbirds, 95–96
stress and, 90–91
traditional view of, 15–24, 86–89, 169, 178–79, 181, 195
unknown functions of, 92–93
Brain Storm (Jordan-Young), 190
British Toxicology Society, 228n
Brown, Gillian, 51
Browne, Kingsley, 129
Brown University, 86
buff-breasted sandpiper, 37
Buffett, Warren, 157
Bulgari, 63, 64, 72
bush crickets, 43, 61, 73, 185
Buston, Peter, 74
Cahill, Larry, 16–17, 104, 105, 225n
California, University of:
at Davis, 38
at Irvine, 16
at Los Angeles (UCLA), 72
Cambridge University, 19, 44, 167, 181, 182
canaries, 95
Cárdenas, Juan-Camilo, 157
caregiving, 178
career costs of, 155
cultural norms for, 144, 146
by males, 43, 44, 144, 145–46
by parents, 43, 44, 99
as supposedly feminine trait, 17, 107, 113
testosterone levels and, 130, 143, 144, 145, 232n
traditional view of, 189
Carothers, Bobbi, 101–2, 225n
Carré, Justin, 148
Carr-Gregg, Michael, 176
Casey, Patricia, 83–84, 86–87, 107
Cashdan, Elizabeth, 124
casual sex:
differences in male vs. female attitudes towards, 54–60, 117, 211n–12n
double standard in, 56–58, 213n, 236n
importance of male vs. female orgasms in, 58–59
central nervous system, sex differences in, 93
Challenging Casanova: Beyond the Stereotype of the Promiscuous Young Male (Smiler), 52
Chancing It (Keyes), 113–15
Chicago, University of, 94
children:
gender socialization in, see gender socialization
males as caregivers for, 43, 44, 144, 145–46
unequal parental investment in, 14–15, 32–33, 42, 47–48
Chile, 156, 158
China, 75, 122, 124, 156, 163
choosiness, 87
in females, 32, 35, 43, 207n
in males, 40–41
cichlid fish, 130–31, 139, 141, 142, 185
Clark, Russell, 54, 56, 59
Clarkin, Patrick, 61
clitoris, 85
Coates, John, 167, 168, 244n
cofactors, 136
cognition, 100
Cohen, Dov, 148
coho salmon, 131
Colombia, 124, 157
Columbia University, 112
communication, 100
competitiveness, 15, 18, 19–20, 21, 23, 87, 178
cultural context and, 124–25, 147
and female reproductive success, 39, 43
in females, 39–40, 43, 127, 131–32, 140, 142, 168
intra- vs. intersexual, 30–31
and male reproductive success, 33–34, 37, 48–49, 123, 164–65
risk taking and, 110, 226n
sexual displays and, 30–31
as supposedly masculine trait, 110–11, 142
testosterone and, 129–31, 143–44, 146–47, 168, 232n, 237n
weak correlation between sex and, 124–25
concentration camps, gift giving in, 64
Concordia University, 57, 175
confirmation bias, 154–55, 162–63
congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), 85, 181, 182–83
Conley, Terri, 56, 59, 60, 117
Cook, Hera, 76–77
Cornell University, 131
cortisol, 166, 237n, 244n
Corvette, 17, 104, 105
culture:
caregiving and, 144, 146
competitiveness and, 124–25, 147
risk taking and, 126, 127, 156–57
sex roles and, 178, 183
sexuality and, 65, 76, 78–79, 84, 144–45, 177–78
Cunningham, Sheila, 193
Daily Telegraph (Australia), 176
Dalhousie University, 191
Darwin, Charles, 29–31, 109, 201n, 205n
Datoga, 144
Davies, Nick, 44
DC Thomson, 174
Del Giudice, Marco, 225n
Delingpole, James, 175
Delusions of Gender (Fine), 103, 183
dendritic spines, 90
Denmark, 55
Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex, The (Darwin), 30
developmental plasticity, 233n–34n
developmental systems:
adaptive behaviours and, 186, 188–91
brain and, 186, 234n
de Vries, Geert, 93, 95, 97–98
digit ratio, 163–64, 165–66, 180
DLKW Lowe, 174
DNA paternity testing, 37
domestic violence, 191–92
dominance, social, 185
of females, 40, 132
in H. burtoni cichlids, 130–31, 139, 141, 142
seen as masculine trait, 17, 102, 107, 109–10
Downey, Greg, 65, 76, 215n
Downton Abbey (TV show), 99
dunnock (hedge sparrow), 44, 185
Dupré, John, 14, 20, 65–66, 73, 75, 186
Eagly, Alice, 73, 99–100, 190, 211n–12n
East Africa, 130
Economist, 18
Ecuador, 72
education, biological sex and, 17–18
effect size, 101, 154
Eicher, Eva, 86
Einon, Dorothy, 47, 48, 49
Einstein, Gillian, 94
Elgar, Mark, 41
Emlen, Stephen, 74
Emory University, 140
England, 76
epigenetics, 96
brain and, 89–90, 96, 234n
evolution:
adaptation and, 184–88, 189
risk taking and, 109–10, 122–23, 125, 152
sex differences in, 15–16, 22, 87, 184–85
and unequal parental investment, 14–15
Evolutionary Bases of Consumption, The (Saad), 175
Evolutionary Psychologists, 52, 60, 63, 71, 78, 185, 218n
exaptation, 65
Exeter University, 14, 121
“failure-as-an-asset” effect, 161, 169
fallopian tubes, 85
Fast Track intervention, 147–48
Fausto-Sterling, Anne, 86, 95–96, 97, 179–80
females:
aggression in, 102–3, 132
biological investment in children of, 14–15, 32–33, 42, 47–48
choosiness in, 32, 35, 43, 207n
competitiveness in, 39–40, 43, 127, 131–32, 140, 142, 168
promiscuity in, 35–40
reproductive success of, see reproductive success, female
risk taking by, 110, 115, 116–17, 126, 127, 239n
sexual displays by, 31
sexual double standards and, 56–58
social dominance of, 40, 132
testosterone in, 137, 138, 143, 146, 166, 168, 203n
feminism, 15, 34
and women’s sexuality, 78
Ferrari, 113
FIA Formula 1 World Championship, 16
finance industry:
low cost of failure in, 170
risk taking in, 20, 151–52
sex inequality in, 169–70
sexual stereotyping and, 152, 244n
testosterone and, 20, 151–52, 167–70
financial crisis of 2007–2009, 20, 22–24, 152, 170
Financial Times, 125, 168–69
fixedness, of traits, 188–90
Flood, Michael, 213n
Flynn, James, 118
Forbes, 18
Forger, Nancy, 93, 97–98
Formula 1 racing, 16, 20
France, 55
Francis, Richard, 129, 131
fruit flies (Drosophila), 29
Bateman’s experiments with, 29, 31–32, 33–36, 39, 40, 42, 43, 48, 60, 61, 137, 177, 205n, 206n
Fuentes, Augustín, 51–52, 149
funnel plots, 154–55
Gapun, 103
Geary, D. C., 216n
gender:
essentialist view of, 204n
as hierarchy, 193
as social construct, 144, 145, 180, 190, 191
social norms and, 120–21, 180–81, 192
use of term, 25–26, 204n
see also sex, biological
gender inequality, see workplace, sex inequality in
gender similarities hypothesis, 100–101
gender socialization, 97–98, 180–81, 182, 184, 192
hormones and, 135
gender theorists, 85
gene expression, 234n
and brain sex differences, 95–96
social information and, 142
testosterone and, 136
genes, in determination of biological sex, 84–87
genetic-gonadal-genitals (3G) sex, 85, 88
genetic inheritance, mutations in, 31–32
Genghis Khan, 178
genitals:
brain compared to, 88–89, 92
male vs. female, 85
Germany, Nazi, 64
Gettler, Lee, 144
gift giving:
in mating strategies, 63–64
in nonsexual contexts, 64
Gilmour, Helenor
, 174
Girls Will Be Girls (O’Toole), 57
Glasgow, University of, 15, 16
“glass cliff” effect, 168
gonads, 85, 86, 89, 134
social context and, 131
Gong, Binglin, 157
“good genes” grab, 15
Google, 57
Gowaty, Patricia, 34–35, 36, 205n, 206n
Gray, John, 17, 18
Great Britain, 157, 215n
National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NATSAL) of, 53–54, 215n–16n
Great Indian Desert, 38
Griffiths, Paul, 97, 184–86, 188
Guardian, 151
Gupta, Vishal, 160
Hadza, 72, 144, 211n
Haig, D., 204n
Han Chinese, 125
Haplochromis burtoni (cichlid), 130–31, 139, 141, 142, 185
Harvard University, 38, 84, 117
Haslam, Nick, 189
Hatfield, Elaine, 54, 56, 59
hedge sparrows, 44, 185
Henrich, Joseph, 156, 158–59
Herbert, Joe, 19, 129, 149, 151, 164, 167, 169, 203n
Hines, Melissa, 182, 183
hippocampus, 90
Hoffman, Moshe, 109, 110–11, 113
hookups, see casual sex
hormone receptors, 135–36
hormones:
behaviour and, 133, 138–50
brain and, 89–90, 94
function of, 134–35, 141
and gender socialization, 135
moods and, 94
secondary sexual characteristics and, 134, 137–38
sexual behaviour and, 139–41
social context and, 149
Hormones and Animal Social Behavior (Adkins-Regan), 128
horned dung beetles, 42–43
Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer, 38–39, 71, 72, 131
Huinca, 156, 158, 163
humans, adaptability of, see adaptation, human
“Humans Are (Blank)-ogamous” (Clarkin), 61
hunter-gatherer societies, sex roles in, 100
Hutterite group, 47
Hyde, Janet, 100–101
Illinois, University of, 148
India, 38, 125, 156
infants, gendered behaviour in, 181–82
“innate,” use of term, 188
intersex individuals, 85–86, 88
Intersex Society of North America, 85
“Intuitive Evolutionary Perspectives in Marketing Practices” (article), 175
Iowa Gambling Task, 158, 166, 244n
Jennions, Michael, 42
Jethá, C., 211n–12n
Joel, Daphna, 85, 89, 90, 91, 92, 105, 132, 220n
Jordan-Young, Rebecca, 183, 190, 224n
Kahan, Dan, 119–20
Kassel, University of, 161
Kay, John, 125, 231n
Kennett, Jeanette, 20
Keyes, Ralph, 113–15
Khasi, 125, 156