H. Rock, Richmond, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., November 8, 1868, SUP, LR,
1868–1870, reel 7; Charles Haughn, Waco, to [Headquarters], September 30, 1868, SUP,
LR, 1868–1870, reel 6; Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to Joseph Welch, Superintendent of
Education, December 31, 1868, SUP, LR, 1868–1870, reel 6; Th
omas Bayley, Marshall, to
E. M. Wheelock, Superintendent of Schools, September 20, 1866, SUP, ULR, 1866–1867
and 1869–1870, reel 10; Jackson, “Family and Freedom,” 96–97, 101–102; Henry Lee
Swint, Th
e Northern Teacher in the South, 1862–1870 (Nashville: Vanderbilt University
Press, 1941), 35–68, 82–83, 92–95, 136; Abbott, Freedmen’s Bureau in South Carolina,
122–123, 129; Martin Abbott, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and Negro Schooling in South
Carolina,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 56 (Spring 1956): 75; Alton Hornsby, Jr.,
“Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau Schools in Texas, 1865–1870,” Southwestern Historical Quar-
terly 76 (July 1972- April 193): 398; Flake’s Daily Bulletin, February 10, 1867. Complaints
in obtaining lodging for white women teachers are in Edwin Miller, Millican, to J. T.
Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of Schools, April 30, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel
4; and Charles E. Culver, Cotton Gin, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of
Schools, September 7, 1868, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3.
16. James Jay Emerson, Waco, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., Superintendent of
Schools, May 31, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3; Morris, Reading, ‘Riting, and Recon-
struction, 133; Hayward, “Winning the Race,” 80; William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to J.
Ernest Goodman, Columbus, July 19, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–March 1867, reel 1;
Louis W. Stevenson, Columbus, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., April 30, 1868, SUP, LR,
1868–1870, reel 7; Charles F. Rand, Marshall, to E. M. Wheelock, Superintendent of
Schools, March 4, 1867, SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4. For run- ins between agents and
teachers, see Charles F. Rand, Marshall, to Edwin M. Wheelock, Superintendent of
Schools, March 4, 1867, SAC, LS, December 1866–December 1868, reel 21; C. E. Coleman
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240
Notes to pages 98–101
to [E. M.] Gregory, April 25, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; L. H. Sanger, Woodville, to
A.A.A.G., District of Texas, August 4, 1867, SAC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; and DeWitt C.
Brown, Paris, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., May 20, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10;
and Bill Stein, “Consider the Lily: Th
e Ungilded History of Colorado County, Texas,”
Nesbitt Memorial Library Journal 9 (January 2000): 13.
17. John H. Morrison, San Antonio, to [Charles] Griffi
n, July 8, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 7; Patrick F. Duggan, Columbia, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., August 8, 1867,
SUP, LR, 1866–1867, reel 3.
18. Richter, Overreached on All Sides, 157; Robert Harrison, “Welfare and Employ-
ment Policies of the Freedmen’s Bureau in the District of Columbia,” Journal of
Southern History 77 (February 2006): 108; De Forest, Union in Reconstruction, 87–88;
Cox and Cox, “General Howard and ‘Misrepresented Bureau,’ ” 429–430; Olds,
“Freedmen’s Bureau as a Social Agency,” 127; Everly, “Freedmen’s Bureau in the
National Capital,” 19; White, “Black Lives, Red Tape,” 242; Carpenter, “Agents of the
Freedmen’s Bureau,” 30.
19. Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to [J. B. Kiddoo], October 2, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 4; Cox and Cox, “General Howard and ‘Misrepresented Bureau,’ ” 430; Byron
Porter, Austin, to J. B. Kiddoo, January 25, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Galveston
Daily News, January 13, 1867; Byron Porter, Bastrop, to J. R. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 3,
1867, AC, ROC, June–August, 1867, reel 21; Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to Chauncey
C. Morse, A.A.A.G., February 25, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Alex B. Coggeshall,
Julius Schultz to J. B. Kiddoo, January 22, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; Special
Orders No. 6, January 11, 1867, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; C. V. Shafer,
et al., to [J. T. Kirkman], A.A.A.G., [1867], AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; Julius Schultze, et
al., to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., [1865], AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; William H.
Sinclair, A.A.G., to Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, January 15, 1867, LS, April 1866–Sep-
tember 1867, reel 2; William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, Febru-
ary 18, 1867, AC, LS, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Special Orders No. 15, February
13, 1867, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Special Orders No. 22, February 20,
1867, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Special Orders No. 42, July 13, 1868,
AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869.
20. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., September 7, 1868,
AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; William Longworth, Sutherland Springs, to [Headquarters],
April 16, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to Henry A. Ellis,
A.A.A.G., September 30, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Charles Garretson, A.A.Q.M.,
to Fred W. Reinhard, Centreville, July 15, 1867, SAC, PCLS, July–October, 1867, reel 2;
Endorsement of letter from Charles E. Culver, Cotton Gin, to Charles Garretson,
A.A.A.G., October 2, 1867, AC, ES, March 1867–May 1869, reel 2; Charles Garretson,
A.A.Q.M., to Chief Quartermaster of Bureau, October 26, 1867, SAC, PCLS, October
1867–February 1868, reel 2; Charles Garretson, A.A.Q.M., to William G. Kirkman,
Boston, October 15, 1867, SAC, PCLS, July–October 1867, reel 2.
21. Walter B. Pease, Houston, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., February 1, 1868, AC,
ROC, January–February, 1868, reel 24. Another example of such double- duty is
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Notes to pages 101–103
241
Edward W. Whittemore, Seguin, to A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G., District of Texas, Feb-
ruary 1, 1867, AC, Letters Received, 1866–1867, reel 9.
22. Hardin Hart, Greenville, to A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G., District of Texas, May
31, 1866, AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; Endorsement of letter from Wil-
liam G. Kirkman, Boston, to Charles Garretson, A.A.A.G., September 16, 1867, AC, ES,
March 1867–May 1869, reel 2. For agents taking off ense, see George C. Abbott, Hemp-
stead, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., February 19, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17,
A. H. N. Rolfe, Columbia, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; A.
F. N. Rolfe, Columbia, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., February 11, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 14; and B. J. Arnold, Brenham, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., December
2, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17. William G. Kirkman’s paperwork returned is in
SAC, Register of Letters Received and Endorsements, July 1867–September 1868 (here-
aft er RLE), Registered Letters Received, July 1867–September 1868 (herea
ft er RLR),
and LR, August 1867–August 1868, reel 13.
23. A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 3, 1867, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 6; A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to J. B. Kiddoo, January 25, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–
1867, reel 7. More instances are Byron Porter, Austin, to J. B. Kiddoo, January 25, 1867,
AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Charles Garretson, A.A.Q.M., to James P. Butler, Huntsville,
May 11, 1867, SAC, PCLS, July–October 1867, reel 1; Charles Garretson, A.A.Q.M., to
Anthony M. Bryant, Sherman, July 18, 1867, SAC, PCLS, July–October 1867, reel 2; and
Endorsement of letter from William H. Rock, Richmond, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G.,
October 1, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2.
24. S. J. W. Mintzer, Surgeon in Chief, to [E. M. Gregory], December 1, 1865, AC,
RRR, 1865–1866, reel 29; J. B. Kiddoo to O. O. Howard, July 23, 1866, AC, LS, Septem-
ber 1865–March 1867, reel 1. Examples of requests for leaves of absence or resignations
are Frank Holsinger, Beaumont, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., April 29, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 6; Special Orders No. 39, February 15, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–
April 1869, reel 19; Frank Holsinger File, Pension Record; Special Orders No. 63, April
16, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Frederick H. Dyer, comp., A Com-
pendium of the War of the Rebellion (New York: Th
omas Yoseloff , 1959), 3:1726–1727; J.
Orville Shelby, Liberty, to [J. B.] Kiddoo, July 26, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; Spe-
cial Orders No. 98, July 10, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; James A.
Hogue, Cold Springs, to J. B. Kiddoo, July 18, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; Special
Orders No. 100, August 16, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19. Charles C.
Hardenbrook and J. Ernest Goodman wanted to remain with the Bureau, just in
another state. For these two men, particularly Goodman, headquarters was more than
willing to accommodate them (see Endorsement of letter from Brvt. Brig. Gen. F. E.
Trotter to J. B. Kiddoo, July 27, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; and
Endorsement of letter J. Ernest Goodman, Columbus, to J. B. Kiddoo, June 4, 1866, AC,
ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2). For instances being denied, see Endorsement of
letter from O. O. Howard to J. B. Kiddoo, October 3, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–Septem-
ber 1867, reel 2; Endorsement of letter from Isaac Johnson, La Grange, to William H.
Sinclair, A.A.G., August 6, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Endorse-
ment of letter from John H. Morrison, Palestine, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., September
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242
Notes to pages 103–104
15, 1868, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Endorsement of letter from [David]
R. Porter, San Antonio, to J. B. Kiddoo, October 2, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September
1867, reel 2; and Isaac Johnson, La Grange, to C. H. Whittelsey, A.A.G., September 4,
1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, 6.
25. William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to William Longworth, Seguin, June 20, 1866, AC,
ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to [Headquarters],
October 2, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to J. T. Kirk-
man, A.A.A.G., February 5, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Albert A. Metzner, San
Augustine, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 30, 1867, AC, ROC, June–August, 1867, reel
21; William H. Rock, Richmond, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 2, 1867, AC,
ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; Arthur B. Homer, Columbia, to Charles A.
Vernou, A.A.A.G., November 30, 1868, AC, ROC, November–December, 1868, reel 28.
Agents also saw that when planters had a bad crop, which reduced their income, vio-
lence against the freedmen increased (see Ira H. Evans, Wharton, to Charles Garret-
son, A.A.A.G., October 1, 1867, AC, ROC, September–October, 1867, reel 22; and
Edward Collins, Brenham, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., February 1, 1868, AC, ROC,
January–February, 1868, reel 24). For works on antebellum attempts to transplant free
labor into the slaveholding South, see Otis K. Rice, “Eli Th
ayer and the Friendly Inva-
sion of Virginia,” Journal of Southern History 37 (November 1971): 575–596; Sara T.
Philips, “Antebellum Agricultural Reform, Republican Ideology, and Sectional Ten-
sion,” Agricultural History 74 (Autumn 2000): 799–822; George Winston Smith, “Ante-
Bellum Attempts of Northern Business Interests to ‘Redeem’ the Upper South,”
Journal of Southern History 11 (May 1945): 177–213; and Patricia P. Hickin, “John Curtis
Underwood and the Antislavery Crusade, 1809–1860” (Master’s Th
esis, University of
Virginia, 1961).
26. Edward Miller, Victoria, to A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G., District of Texas, Janu-
ary 31, 1867, AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; Jacob C. DeGress, Houston,
to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G., October 15, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; Endorsement
of letter from Jacob C. DeGress, Houston, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G., December 6,
1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2; Samuel A. Craig, Brenham, to Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, A.A.G., August 2, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4. For more examples
of better race relations due to competition, see Lemuel K. Morton, Sterling, to [J. B.
Kiddoo], November 6, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; William H. Sinclair, Inspector,
to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., August 18, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; Edward Col-
lins, Brenham, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., August 3, 1867, AC, ROC, June–August,
1867, reel 21; DeWitt C. Brown, Wharton, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., April 3, 1867,
AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; and L. J. Warner, Inspector, to Henry A.
Ellis, A.A.A.G., December 6, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 9. Studies fi nding competi-
tion and profi ts to protect the former slaves are Higgs, Competition and Coercion, ix;
and Roark, Master Without Slaves, 134–155; and Joe M. Richardson, “Th
e Freedmen’s
Bureau and Negro Labor in Florida,” Florida Historical Quarterly 39 (October 1960):
167–174.
27. James P. Hutchison, Columbus, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., August 14, 1866,
AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6; Albert A. Metzner, Clinton, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G.,
August 14, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; Joshua L. Randall, Sterling, to J. T. Kirkman,
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Notes to pages 104–107
243
A.A.A.G., April 30, 1867, AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 20; L. S Barnes,
Crockett, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., June 14, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 4.
28. A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to J. B. Kiddoo, January 9, 1867, AC, ROC, December
1866–May 1867, reel 20; Albert A. Metzner, San Augustine, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G.,
September 1, 1867, AC, ROC, June–August, 1867, reel 21; Circular Order No. 1, February
2, 1867, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Lemuel K. Morton, Sterling, to J. B.
Kiddoo, September 30, 1866, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 7; A. G. Malloy, Marshall, to J. P.
Richardson, A.A.A.G., November 30, 1867, AC, ROC, November–December, 1867, reel
23; A. H. Mayer, Liberty, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., May 1, 1867, AC, ROC, December
1866–May 1867, reel 20; Charles H. Morse, Brownsville, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G.,
June 1, 1867, AC, ROC, December 1866–May 1867, reel 23.
29. William Heistand, Hallettsville, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G., November 23,
1866, AC, LS, June 1868–January 1869, reel 21. Studies fi nding simultaneous advocating
for sharecropping and wages are in Daniel R. Weinfeld, “ ‘More Courage Th
an Discre-
tion’: Charles M. Hamilton in Reconstruction- Era Florida,” Florida Historical Quar-
terly 84 (Spring 1984): 482–484; and Ralph Shlomowitz, “ ‘Bound’ or “Free”? Black
Labor in Cotton and Sugarcane Farming, 1865–1880,” Journal of Southern History 50
(November 1984): 369–596.
30. Works indicting the agency for the rise of sharecropping are Wiener, Social
Origins of the New South; Novak, Wheel of Servitude, chapter 2; and Franklin, Ensur-
ing Inequality, chapter 2.
31. Albert A. Metzner, San Augustine, to [Headquarters], November 23, 1867, AC,
LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; Albert A. Metzner, San Augustine, to [Headquarters], Novem-
ber 23, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to Charles A.
Vernou, A.A.A.G., July 13, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1868, reel 15; William Philips, et al, to
[Headquarters], October 16, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; Jacob Omerod to J. P.
Richardson, A.A.A.G., December 6, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14; S. W. Blount to
[Headquarters], November 23, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 14. For more examples of
agents having their performance questioned, see Samuel I. Wright, A.Q.M., Disbursing
Offi
cer, to [William H.] Sinclair, Special Duty, October 22, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867,
reel 9; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., April 1, 1867, AC, LR
1866–1867, reel 8; John Williamson to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., March 8, 1866, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 9; Special Orders No. 104, August 21, 1866, AC, IRB, October 1865–
April, 1868, reel 19.
32. Mahlon E. Davis, Brenham, to William H. Sinclair, Special Duty, Galveston,
January 17, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 5; William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., to Mahlon E.