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Notes
Chapter One: The Open Polar Sea
1 Diederick Wildeman, “Who Was William Barents?” Original, untranslated source: “Wie was Willem Barentsz? De rol van Barentsz tijdens de reizen naar het hoge noorden in 1594–1597,” in Leo Akveld, Remmelt Daalder, Frits Loomeijer, Diederick Wildeman, eds., Koersvast: Vijf eeuwen navigatie op zee: Een bundel opstellen aangeboden aan Willem Mörzer Bruyns bij zijn afscheid van het Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam in 2005 (Zaltbommel: Aprilis, 2005), p. 218. Translated into English for the author in December 2018 by Robert Neugarten.
2 Ole Peter Grell, Calvinist Exiles in Tudor and Stuart England (London: Routledge, 1996), p. 4.
3 Richard Paping, “General Dutch Population development 1400–1850, cities and countryside,” University of Groningen, 2014. https://www.rug.nl/research/portal/files/15865622/articlesardinie21sep2014.pdf.
4 Diodorus Siculus, Library of History Book II. 47. 1–6 (trans. C. H. Oldfather).
5 Pepijn Brandon, Sabine Go, and Wygren Verstegen, Navigating History: Economy, Society, Knowledge, and Nature: Essays in Honour of Prof. Dr. C.A. Davids (Amsterdam: International Institute of Social History, 2018), p. 133.
6 Thomas R. Rochon, The Netherlands: Negotiating Sovereignty in an Interdependent World (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1999), p. 237.
7 Jürgen G. Backhaus, Navies and State Formation (Vienna: LIT Verlag, 2012), p. 283.
8 This work of Pytheas only exists in fragments quoted by others. This quote comes from Strabo, as translated by Christina Horst Roseman in Pytheas of Massalia: On the Ocean (Chicago Ridge, IL: Ares, 1994), p. 125.
9 “Proof of a 2,000 kilometre polar trade route in volcanic glass dating back at least 8,000 years,” Siberian Times, March 7, 2019.
10 One account says he began with only twenty-five ships, but in either case, he lost a staggering number of ships in transit.
11 Soren Thirslund, Viking Navigation (Roskilde: Viking Ship Museum, 2017), p. 11.
12 Siebren van der Werf, “History and critical analysis of fifteenth and sixteenth century nautical tables,” Journal for the History of Astronomy 48, no.2 (May 2017):207–232.
13 Van der Werf, “History and critical analysis,” p. 3.
14 “The Ship’s Council on the Expedition of Pet and Jackman on July 27th, 1580,” Mariner’s Mirror 16, no. 4 (1930):411.
15 Jan Huygen van Linschoten, Voyagie, ofte schip-vaert, van Ian Huyghen van Linschoten, van by Noorden om langes Noorvvegen de Noortcaep, Laplant, Vinlant, Ruslandt, de Vitte Zee, de custen van candenoes, Svvetenoes, Pitzora (Amsterdam: Ian Evertss. Cloppenburg, 1624), preface, p. 3. Translated into English for the author in 2018 and 2019 by Tjitske Kummer.
Chapter Two: Off the Edge of the Map
1 Jan Huygen van Linschoten, Voyagie, ofte schip-vaert, van Ian Huyghen van Linschoten, van by Noorden om langes Noorvvegen de Noortcaep, Laplant, Vinlant, Ruslandt, de Vitte Zee, de custen van candenoes, Svvetenoes, Pitzora, preface, Pitzora (Amsterdam: Ian Evertss. Cloppenburg, 1624) p. 3. Translated into English for the author in 2018 and 2019 by Tjitske Kummer.
2 Ibid., preface, p. 2.
3 Michael Engelhard, Ice Bear: The Cultural History of an Arctic Icon (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2017), p. 102.
4 Gerrit de Veer, The Three Voyages of William Barents to the Arctic Regions (London: Elibron Classics, 2005), p. 25.
5 Ernest Shackleton, South: The Illustrated Story of Shackleton’s Last Expedition: 1914–1917 (Minneapolis: Zenith Press, 2016), p. 99.
6 Princeton University Maps Library, catalogue information on Ferdinand Magellan. Pulled December 1, 2019. https://libweb5.princeton.edu/visual_materials/maps/websites/pacific/magellan/magellan.html.
Chapter Three: Death in the Arctic
1 Diederick Wildeman, “Who Was William Barents?” endnote 3. Original, untranslated source: “Wie was Willem Barentsz? De rol van Barentsz tijdens de reizen naar het hoge noorden in 1594–1597,” in Leo Akveld, Remmelt Daalder, Frits Loomeijer, Diederick Wildeman, eds., Koersvast: Vijf eeuwen navigatie op zee: Een bundel opstellen aangeboden aan Willem Mörzer Bruyns bij zijn afscheid van het Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam in 2005 (Zaltbommel: Aprilis, 2005), p. 215. Translated into English for the author in December 2018 by Robert Neugarten.
2 Gerrit de Veer, The Three Voyages of William Barents to the Arctic Regions (London: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 60, footnote one.
3 Elaine Fantham, “Caesar and the Mutiny: Lucan’s Reshaping of the Historical Tradition in De Bello Civili,” Classical Philology 80, no. 2 (April 1985).
Chapter Four: Sailing for the Pole
1 Diederick Wildeman, “Who Was William Barents?,” paragraph 10. Original, untranslated source: “Wie was Willem Barentsz? De rol van Barentsz tijdens de reizen naar het hoge noorden in 1594–1597,” in Leo Akveld, Remmelt Daalder, Frits Loomeijer, Diederick Wildeman, eds., Koersvast: Vijf eeuwen navigatie op zee: Een bundel opstellen aangeboden aan Willem Mörzer Bruyns bij zijn afscheid van het Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam in 2005 (Zaltbommel: Aprilis, 2005), p. 215. Translated into English for the author in December 2018 by Robert Neugarten.
2 Ibid., endnote 5.
3 Fletcher Bassett, Legends and Superstitions of the Sea and of Sailors in All Lands and at All Times (London: S. Low, Marston, Searle & Rivington, 1885), p. 418.
4 Author interview with Peter J. Capelotti, January 2018.
Chapter Five: Castaways
1 William Dean Howells and Thomas Sergeant Perry, Library of Universal Adventure by Sea and Land (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1888), p. 23.
2 “Dr. Rae’s Report,” A letter from Rae to Charles Dickens, Household Words 10, no. 249 (December 30, 1854):458.
3 James S. Aber syllabus for History of Geology, Emporia State University. Pulled December 1, 2019. http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/histgeol/nansen/nansen.htm (URL inactive).
4 Susan Kaplan and Genevieve LeMoine, Peary’s Arctic Quest: Untold Stories from Robert E. Peary’s North Pole Expeditions (Lanham, MD: Down East Books: 2019), p. 24.
5 Peter J. Capelotti. The Greatest Show in the Arctic: The American Exploration of Franz Josef Land, 1898–1905 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016), p. 35.
6 Michael F. Robinson, The Coldest Crucible: Arctic Exploration and American Culture (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2006), p. 80.
7 Louwrens Hacquebord, “In Search of Het Behouden Huys,” Arctic 48, no. 3 (September 1995):248.
Chapter Six: The Safe House
1 Svalbard Museum in Longyearbyen, Norway. Information pulled December 1, 2019. https://svalbardmuseum.no/en/kultur-og-historie/hvalfangst/.
2 Canadian Museum of History. Information pulled December 1, 2019. https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/paleoesq/pea01eng.html.
3 Iris Bruijn, Ship’s Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the Progress of Medicine in the Eighteenth Century (Leiden: Leiden University Press, 2009), p. 16.
4 Ibid., pp. 15–16.
5 Richard Unger, Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2004), p. 130.
vs-water-there-is-no-contest-for-17th-century-sailors/.
7 Simon Worral, “A Nightmare Disease Haunted Ships in the Age of Discovery,” National Geographic, January 2017, https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/01/scurvy-disease-discovery-jonathan-lamb/.
8 Jeremy Hugh Baron, “Sailors’ scurvy before and after James Lind,” Nutrition Reviews 67, no. 6 (2009):315–332.
9 Rachael Rettner, “How Does a Person Freeze to Death?” LiveScience, January 30, 2019. https://www.livescience.com/6008-person-freeze-death.html.
10 Peter Stark, “Frozen Alive,” Outside magazine, March 7, 2016.
11 Siebren van der Werf, email exchange with the author, February 18, 2020.
12 Heinz Mehilhorn, Encyclopedic Reference of Parasitology: Biology, Structure, Function (Berlin: Springer, 2001), p. 289.
Chapter Seven: The King of Nova Zembla
1 Anke A. Van Wagenberg-Ter Hoeven, “The Celebration of Twelfth Night in Netherlandish Art.” Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art 22, no. ½ (1993):65–96. doi:10.2307/3780806.
2 Hjalmar Johansen. With Nansen in the North: A Record of the Fram Expedition in 1893–96 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Library, 1899), p. 120.
Chapter Eight: The Midnight Sun and the False Dawn
1 Siebren van der Werf, Het Nova Zembla Verschijnsel: Geschiedenis van een Luchtspiegeling (Historische Uitgeverij: 2011), and W. H. Lehn and I. I. Schroeder, “Polar Mirages as Aids to Norse Navigation,” Polarforschung 49, no. 2 (1979):173–187.
2 Priscilla Clarkson, “The Effect of Exercise and Heat on Vitamin Requirements,” Nutritional Needs in Hot Environments Applications for Military Personnel in Field Operations, Institute of Medicine, US Committee on Military Nutrition (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1993).
3 John McCannon, Red Arctic (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 48.
Chapter Nine: Escape
1 “Warming to Cap Art,” The Journal, August 15, 2006.
2 Diederick Wildemann, “Who Was William Barents?” Original, untranslated source: “Wie was Willem Barentsz? De rol van Barentsz tijdens de reizen naar het hoge noorden in 1594–1597,” in Leo Akveld, Remmelt Daalder, Frits Loomeijer, Diederick Wildeman, eds., Koersvast: Vijf eeuwen navigatie op zee: Een bundel opstellen aangeboden aan Willem Mörzer Bruyns bij zijn afscheid van het Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam in 2005 (Zaltbommel: Aprilis, 2005), p. 219. Translated into English for the author in December 2018 by Robert Neugarten.
3 J. H.G. Gawronski and P. V. Boyarsky, eds., Northbound with Barents: Russian-Dutch Integrated Archaeological Research on the Archipelago Novaya Zemlya (Amsterdam: Stichting Olivier van Noort, 1997), p. 92.
Coda: The Shores of Nova Zembla
1 T. C. W. Blanning, The Pursuit of Glory: Europe, 1648–1815 (New York: Viking, 2007), p. 96.
2 Diederick Wildeman, “Who Was William Barents?” Original, untranslated source: “Wie was Willem Barentsz? De rol van Barentsz tijdens de reizen naar het hoge noorden in 1594–1597,” in Leo Akveld, Remmelt Daalder, Frits Loomeijer, Diederick Wildeman, eds., Koersvast: Vijf eeuwen navigatie op zee: Een bundel opstellen aangeboden aan Willem Mörzer Bruyns bij zijn afscheid van het Nederlands Scheepvaartmuseum Amsterdam in 2005 (Zaltbommel: Aprilis, 2005), p. 217. Translated into English for the author in December 2018 by Robert Neugarten.
3 Svalbard Museum in Longyearbyen, Norway. Section on whaling history in permanent exhibition.
Index
A note about the index: The pages referenced in this index refer to the page numbers in the print edition. Clicking on a page number will take you to the ebook location that corresponds to the beginning of that page in the print edition. For a comprehensive list of locations of any word or phrase, use your reading system’s search function.
Page numbers in italics refer to maps and illustrations.
Act of Abjuration, 4
Admiralty Island, 37, 113, 238
adzes, 135, 150
Africa, 68, 220 northern, 13
sailing around, 96, 219
southern, 19
airplanes, 176
airships, 149 hydrogen, 129
Alaska, 44
Aldebaran (star), 180
Alps, 130
Alva, Third Duke of, 4
American explorers, 129, 131
amnesia, 164
amphibolite, 20
Amsterdam, 6–7, 10, 16, 19, 22, 24, 27, 39, 60, 65, 96, 174, 258, 260 canals of, 3
Court of the Admiralty in, 260
harbor of, 9, 26, 28, 63, 69
Amundsen, Roald, 38, 148–49, 176, 219, 223
anchors, 53, 78, 105, 107 bower, 137
grappling, 86
kedge, 84, 117, 119
spare, 143
Andries, Claes, 132, 211 death of, 217, 259
Antarctica, 44
Antwerp, 4, 5
Arabs, 17, 107
Arawak people, 45
Archangel, 79
Arctic Circle, 17, 31, 52, 263
Arctic hares, 86, 87
Arctic loons, 48
Arctic poppies, 130
Arctic regions, 19, 29, 31, 41, 51, 99, 113, 128 Greek and Roman knowledge of, 12–13, 16–17
survival in, 130–31
training for expeditions in, 128
vegetation in, 48, 130, 138
Aristotle, 100
Armadillo (Boyd), 262
arquebuses, 103
ascorbic acid (vitamin C), 159, 160, 214, 243
Asia, 10, 13, 21, 29 eastern coast of, 57
astrolabe, 17–18
astrology, 167
astronomy, 17–18, 107, 185
Asvaldsson, Thorvald, 14
Atlantic Ocean, 12, 16 crossing of, 19–20, 35, 126
North, 14
aurora borealis, 93
awls, 150
Babylonians, 18
bacon, 133, 211, 250
Bacon, Francis, 107
Bali, 219
Baltic Sea, 3
Baltic states, 12
barber-surgeons, 132, 153–54
Barents, William, 1–41, 129–30, 260 birth of, 2, 218
childhood and adolescence of, 2–3, 4
death of, 3, 108, 217, 220, 222–24, 259
failures of, 218, 220, 221, 223
fame of, 3, 218–19, 222–24, 263
first Arctic voyage of, 1–2, 5–7, 9–12, 16, 17–22, 24–28, 31, 33–39, 41–42, 44–45, 47–48, 51–52, 55, 59–63, 66, 67, 104, 110
illness of, 211, 216, 217
knowledge and skills of, 25, 132, 225
mapmaking of, 3, 217, 218, 220, 245–46
Mediterranean voyages of, 3, 12
navigation of, 130, 180, 215, 217, 225, 245–46, 263
overwintering plan of, 130, 131, 221
physical appearance of, 3
planned exploration voyages of, 126
provisions carried at sea by, 24, 44
relationship of Rijp and, 100–103, 109–10
second Arctic voyage of, 65–68, 71, 73, 81–84, 86, 88–89, 92–96, 110, 130, 131, 180, 219, 240
third Arctic voyage of, 97, 99–101, 103–10, 112, 115, 118–24, 131–32, 148–49, 173–75, 177, 179, 182–85, 214–15, 220
training and education of, 2, 3
wife and children of, 25
Barents Sea, 218
barges, 91
barrels, 54, 103, 133, 139, 140, 142–43 chimney made from, see chimney, at Safe House
makeshift sauna from, 153, 158, 195
Bashkortostan, 3
baths, 153
“Battle of the Books” (Swift), 261
bears, 31, 50, 136–37
Beechey Island, 126
beer, 24, 133, 150, 155, 161, 257 spruce, 140
Beynen, L. R. Koolemans, 221
Beyren Eylandt (Bear Island), 104, 106–9, 115, 255, 257
Bibles, 175–76
Black Death, 153, 205
blisters, 165
blizzards, 123, 152, 258
, 192
blood, 136 circulation of, 25
boat hooks, 114
boats, aluminum, 129
bows and arrows, 56, 82
Boyarsky, Pyotr, 224
Boyd, William, 261–62
Brahe, Tycho, 19
brandy, 133
bread, 123, 133, 139, 155, 182, 232, 244, 246, 249, 250–51, 253
Brielle, 11
Britain, 12, 13, 126, 142
Brontë, Charlotte, 261
Brunel, Olivier, 21, 47, 59
buckets, 62
Bulgaria, 3
Burma, 67
cabins, building of, 132, 135–38, 140–41
Cabot, John, 19–20
Caesar, Julius, 90
calculus, 25
California, 3
Canada, 20, 126, 127
cannibalism, 127, 222
cannons, 132 wheeled, 98
Cape Comfort, 227
Cape Desire, 119, 120, 214
Capelotti, P. J., 105, 129
Cape of Good Hope, 29
Cape of the Eleven Thousand Virgins, 19
Cape of the Idols, 75, 78
Capo Baxo, 36
Capo Negro, 36–37, 238
Carcass, HMS, 142
carpenters, 132, 135, 183–84
cartography, 19
castaways, 125–45
Cathay, 10, 20, 173
central heating, 126
chaffinches, 52
cheeses, 211
chimney, of Safe House, 137, 147, 149, 161, 163, 139, 172–73, 181, 184, 189, 191, 193, 202, 209
China, 15, 21, 39, 57, 59, 63, 131, 173, 241 eastern shores of, 67