46. Almond, G., “Public Opinion and the Development of Space Technology,” Public Opinion Quarterly 24, no. 4 (1960), p. 571.
47. Brzezinski, M., Red Moon Rising: Sputnik and the Hidden Rivalries That Ignited the Space Age (New York, 2008), p. 180.
48. Eisenhower, D. D., “Are We Headed in the Wrong Direction?” Saturday Evening Post, August 11–18, 1962, pp. 19–25.
49. USIA, Office of Research and Intelligence, “World Opinion and the Soviet Satellite: A Preliminary Evaluation,” in NASA’s Origins and the Dawn of the Space Age, ed. D. Portree (Washington, DC, 1998), pp. 21–26.
50. Almond, G., “Public Opinion and the Development of Space Technology: 1957–1960” in Outer Space in World Politics, ed. J. Goldsen (New York, 1963), pp. 71–96.
51. Ibid., p. 76.
52. Ibid., p. 77.
53. Ibid., p. 88.
54. Lubell, S., “Sputnik and American Public Opinion,” Columbia University Forum 1, no. 1 (Winter 1957), p. 15.
55. McLaughlin Green, C., and Lomask, M., Vanguard: A History (Washington, DC, 1970), p. 210.
56. Cadbury, D., Space Race: The Epic Battle Between America and the Soviet Union for Dominion of Space (New York, 2007), p. 173.
57. Eisenhower, D. D., “Official White House Transcript of President Eisenhower’s Press and Radio Conference #123,” concerning the development by the United States of an Earth satellite, October 9, 1957, https://www.eisenhower.archives.gov/research/online_documents/sputnik/10_9_57.pdf.
58. Alston, “International Prestige and the American Space Programme,” p. 83.
59. U.S. Congress, House Comm. on Science and Astronautics, Missile Development and Space Sciences, Hearings, 86th Cong., 1st sess. (1959), p. 20.
60. U.S. Congress, House Committee on Science and Astronautics, Review of the Space Program: Hearing Before the Committee on Science and Astronautics, no. 3, pt. 1, 86th Cong., 2nd sess. (January 22, 1960), pp. 36–37.
61. Van Dyke, Pride and Power, p. 123.
62. Smith, D., Communication via Satellite: A Vision in Retrospect (Boston, 1976), p. 50. The full message: “This is the President of the United States speaking. Through the marvels of scientific advance, my voice is coming to you from a satellite circling in outer space. My message is a simple one. Through this unique means, I convey to you and all mankind America’s wish for peace on earth and good will to men everywhere.”
63. “Premier Calls His First Hot Dog a World Beater; PREMIER PRAISES HIS FIRST HOT DOG,” New York Times, September 23, 1959, p. 1.
64. McDougall, The Heavens and the Earth, p. 202.
65. Van Nimmen, J., and Bruno, L., NASA Historical Data Book: Volume I—NASA Resources 1958–1968 (Washington, DC, 1988), p. 129.
66. U.S. Congress, Senate, Report of the Committee on Commerce, The Speeches, Remarks, Press Conferences, and Statements of Senator John F. Kennedy, August 1 Through November 7, 1960, S. Rep. No. 994, pt. 1, 87th Cong., 1st sess. (1961), pp. 159, 377.
67. Edward Smith, J., “Kennedy and Defense: The Formative Years,” Air University Review, March–April 1967.
68. Kennedy, J. F., “Remarks at a Meeting with the Headquarters Staff of the Peace Corps,” June 14, 1962, in The American Presidency Project, ed. J. T. Woolley and G. Peters (online), available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8718.
69. Kissinger, H., Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (New York, 1957).
70. Kissinger, H., “Military Policy and the Defense of the ‘Grey Areas,’ ” Foreign Affairs 33, no. 3 (1955), pp. 416–428.
71. Kraus, S., “Televised Presidential Debates and Public Policy” (New York, 2000), debate transcripts available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/debates.php.
72. Alston, “International Prestige and the American Space Programme,” p. 212.
73. Nixon, R., “Remarks of the Vice President of the United States, Park Forest, IL,” October 29, 1960, in The American Presidency Project, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25513.
74. “Nixon Calls Missile Lag ‘Inherited’ ” St. Petersburg Times, October 26, 1960, p. A-9.
75. Finney, J., “U.S. Claims Scientific Lead Despite the Soviet Union’s ‘Spectaculars,’ ” New York Times, April 16, 1961, p. E3.
76. Logsdon, J., The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 111–112.
77. Johnson, L. B., “Evaluation of Space Program,” April 28, 1961, Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, vol. 1 (Washington, DC, 1995), pp. 427–429.
78. Ibid., p. 427.
79. Webb and McNamara, “Recommendations for Our National Space Program,” p. 492.
80. Kennedy, J. F., “Address in Los Angeles at a Dinner of the Democratic Party of California,” December 18, 1961, in The American Presidency Project, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=8452.
81. Kennedy, J. F., “Address at Rice University on the Nation’s Space Effort,” September 12, 1962, Houston, TX, available at http://explore.rice.edu/explore/Kennedy_Address.asp.
82. Kennedy, J. F., “Special Message to the Congress on Urgent National Needs,” May 25, 1961, Public Papers of the Presidents, John F. Kennedy, 1961, doc. 205, pp. 396–405, available at www.nasa.gov/pdf/59595main_jfk.speech.pdf.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. U.S. Congress, House Comm. on Science and Astronautics, Review of the Space Program, pt. 1, 86th Congress., 2d sess. (1960), p. 30.
86. McNamara, R. “Brief Analysis of Department of Defense Space Program Efforts,” April 21, 1961, Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, vol. 1 (Washington, DC, 1995), p. 424.
87. Harvey, B., Soviet and Russian Lunar Exploration (New York, 2007), pp. 52–54.
88. U.S. Congress, Miscellaneous Reports on Public Bills II, vol. 2, H.R. Rep., 85th Cong., 2nd sess. (1958), p. 19.
89. Ibid., p. 22.
90. Johnson, L. B., “Special Message to the Senate on Transmitting the Treaty on Outer Space,” February 7, 1967, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=28427.
91. U.S. Congress, House Comm. on Science and Astronautics, The Practical Values of Space Exploration (rev. August 1961), H. Rep. No. 1276, 87th Cong., 1st sess. (1961), p. 22.
92. Ezell, E., and Ezell, L., The Partnership: A History of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (Washington, DC, 1978), pp. 39–44.
93. Finley, D., “Soviet-U.S. Cooperation in Space and Medicine: An Analysis of the Détente Experience,” in Sectors of Mutual Benefit in U.S.-Soviet Relations, ed. N. Jamgotch (Durham, 1985), pp. 133–136.
94. Karash, Y., The Superpower Odyssey: A Russian Perspective on Space Cooperation (Reston, 1999), pp.105–106. The base year for calculation purposes is 1975.
95. Ibid., p. 114.
96. Frutkin, A. W., “International Programs of NASA,” in The Challenges of Space, ed. H. Odishaw (Chicago, 1962), p. 273.
97. Veblen, T., The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (New York, 1899), p. 75.
98. Ibid., p. 102.
99. Ibid., p. 99.
100. Launius, R., “Public Opinion Polls and Perceptions of US Human Spaceflight,” Space Policy 19 (2003), pp. 163–175.
101. For the full story, see Heppenheimer, T. A., The Space Shuttle Decision 1965–1972 (Washington, DC, 2002).
102. Fletcher, J. C., “The Space Shuttle,” November 22, 1971, in Exploring the Unknown: Selected Documents in the History of the U.S. Civil Space Program, vol. 1 (Washington, DC, 1995), pp. 555–556.
103. Weinberger, C., “Memorandum for the President: Future of NASA,” August 12, 1971, in ibid., pp. 546–547.
104. Ibid., p. 547.
105. Heppenheimer, The Space Shuttle Decision 1965–1972, p. 392.
106. Low, G., Deputy Administrator, NASA, Memorandum for the Record, “Meeting the President on January 5, 1972” January 12, 1972, NASA Historical Reference Collection,
History Office, NASA Headquarters, Washington, DC.
107. McCurdy, H., The Space Station Decision: Incremental Politics and Technological Change (Baltimore, 1990); Logsdon, J., Together in Orbit: The Origins of International Participation in the Space Station (Washington, DC, 1998).
108. Reagan, R., “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” January 25, 1984, in The American Presidency Project, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=40205.
109. Church, G., “Reagan Gets Ready,” Time Magazine, January 30, 1984.
110. Reagan, R., and Bush, G., 1984 Campaign Brochure, “Leadership That’s Working,” http://www.4president.org/brochures/1984/reaganbush1984brochure.htm.
111. Ibid.
112. Ibid.
113. Reagan, R., “Remarks at a Reagan-Bush Rally in Fairfield, Connecticut,” October 26, 1984, available at http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1984/102684b.htm.
114. Ibid.
115. Smith, M., “NASA’s Space Station Program: Evolution and Current Status—Testimony Before the House Science Committee, April 4, 2001,” Congressional Research Service (Washington, DC, 2001), http://history.nasa.gov/isstestimony2001.pdf.
116. Clinton. W. J., “Address Before a Joint Session of Congress on Administration Goals,” February 17, 1993, in The American Presidency Project, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=47232.
117. Ibid.
118. Clinton. W. J., “Statement on the Space Station Program,” June 17, 1993, in The American Presidency Project, available at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=46709.
119. Ibid.
120. Ibid.
121. USIA, Office of Research and Intelligence, “World Opinion and the Soviet Satellite,” p. 23; Almond, G., “Public Opinion and the Development of Space Technology: 1957–1960,” pp. 71–96. For a full exploration of the ambiguities, see Bainbridge, W. S., “The Impact of Space Exploration on Public Opinions, Attitudes, and Beliefs,” Historical Studies in the Societal Impact of Spaceflight (Washington, DC, 2015), pp. 1–76.
122. Worden, S. P., SDI and the Alternatives (Washington, DC, 1991); Schweizer, P., Victory: The Reagan Administration’s Secret Strategy That Hastened the Collapse of the Soviet Union (New York, 1994); Hertzberg, H., “Laser Show,” New Yorker, May 15, 2000; Fitzgerald, F., Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars, and the End of the Cold War (New York, 2000); Hey, N., The Star Wars Enigma: Behind the Scenes of the Cold War Race for Missile Defense (Washington, DC, 2006).
123. Westwick, P., “From the Club of Rome to Star Wars: The Era of Limits, Space Colonization, and the Origins of SDI,” (working paper, Envisioning Limits Conference: Berlin, April 21, 2012), p. 1.
124. Ibid., pp. 1–5.
125. McCurdy, H., Inside NASA: High Technology and Organizational Change in the U.S. Space Program (Baltimore, 1993).
126. Siddiqi, A. A., Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (Washington, DC, 2000).
127. Bainbridge, W., The Spaceflight Revolution: A Sociological Study (New York, 1976), p. 81.
128. DeGroot, G., The Dark Side of the Moon: The Magnificent Madness of the American Lunar Quest (New York, 2006).
129. Bainbridge, The Spaceflight Revolution, p. 1.
The Next Space Patrons
1. Clarke, A. C., The Challenge of the Spaceship (New York, 1960), p. 68.
2. Bromberg, J. L., NASA and the Space Industry (Baltimore, 2000).
3. “Constitution of the Cincinnati Astronomical Society,” in Adams, J. Q., An Oration Delivered Before the Cincinnati Astronomical Society (Cincinnati, OH, 1843), p. 70.
INDEX
Abbot, Charles, 116, 120, 121, 125, 131, 140, 142, 150
Goddard funded by, 124, 137, 138, 139, 145, 156
Goddard’s vision shared by, 5, 113–14
impatience of, 135, 137, 157
military applications backed by, 115
as NACA member, 151
Adams, John, 27
Adams, John Quincy, 39, 56, 57, 58, 63, 163
national observatory proposed by, 25–30, 49, 51, 52, 210
religious imagery invoked by, 28, 46
Smithsonian shaped by, 31–32, 33, 51, 52, 103
Adams, Walter, 142
Afghanistan, 193, 201
Airy, George, 30
Albany Mechanics and Farmers Bank, 60
Aldrin, Edwin E., 138–39
Aldrin, Edwin E., Jr. (“Buzz”), 1, 139
Allegheny Observatory, 64–65, 70, 103
Allegheny Telescope Association, 65, 66
Allen, George V., 182–83
Allen, Paul, 104, 208
Almond, Gabriel, 179, 180–81, 199
Alston, Giles, 169, 182
American Airlines, 116
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 85, 99, 135
American Association of Engineers, 130–31
American Observatory Movement, 33, 43, 53, 156, 209, 211
intrinsic motivations for, 38, 41, 44, 49, 74, 101, 102
signaling motives for, 41, 44
American Philosophical Society, 22, 24, 42
American Rocket Society, 132
Apollo program, 1, 138, 170, 216
as anomaly, 8
Cold War context of, 7
cost of, 20, 103, 193, 199, 209
NASA’s assumption of, 166
overconfidence bred by, 201
pros and cons of, 204–5
as signal to world, 162, 171, 174, 187, 189, 190–91, 199–200
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP), 192–93
Armsby, James, 60
Armstrong, Neil, 1, 202
Army Ballistic Missile Agency, 165
Army Signal Corps, 116, 117, 119, 209
Arnold, Henry “Hap,” 150, 151
Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), 100
asteroids, 20, 52, 91, 107
Astor, John Jacob, IV, 129, 214
Astor, Vincent, 138
Astor, William, 61
astrophysics, 68
asymmetric information, 7, 8, 172–73, 177, 179, 212
atomic bomb, 158, 175
Atwood, Wallace, 133, 143, 156
Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex, 38
Avery, Charles, 63
Babcock, Horace, 142, 143
Bache, Alexander Dallas, 52, 60–61
Bainbridge, William Sims, 204
ballistic missiles, 1, 147–48, 164, 165, 176
Bancroft, George, 51
Barlow, Lester P., 150
Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter, 63–64
Barnard Observatory, 63
Barnum, P. T., 35, 36
Bay of Pigs invasion, 187–88
Bell, Alexander Graham, 131
Bennett, Winchester, 118
Berkner, Lloyd, 170
Bezos, Jeff, 2, 104, 208
Blackstone, Timothy, 88
Blagonravov, Anatoli, 192
Bol’shoi Teleskop Azimultal’nyi, 100
Bond, George P., 58
Bond, William Cranch, 59
Boushey, Homer, 150, 151
Bradley, Lewis, 64
Brahe, Tycho, 21
Brashear, John, 79
Breckinridge, Colonel, 145
Brezhnev, Leonid, 192
Bromberg, Joan Lisa, 211
Brown University, 76
Bruce, Catherine Wolfe, 101–2
Buckingham, Edgar, 233 n. 41, 234 n. 44
Bulgaria, 193
Bush, George H. W., 197
Bush, Vannevar, 136, 150
Byrd, Richard, 131, 138
Caldwell, Joseph, 40
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 98, 99, 100, 103, 139, 148, 167, 168
Campbell, Jacob, 78
Canada, 23, 193, 197
Carleton College, 77
Carnegie, Andrew, 5, 88, 89, 96, 156, 208
astronomy’
s appeal to, 90, 91, 93
Hale’s cultivation of, 90–92, 212
Rockefeller vs., 94, 98
Carnegie, Louise, 92
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 88–89, 90, 91, 93, 98, 119, 142–43
Carr, E. H., 169
Carter, Robert, 21–22
Castro, Fidel, 185
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 185
Challenger (space shuttle), 2
Chamberlin, Humphrey, 76–77
Chamberlin Observatory, 77
Chemical Warfare Service, 5, 158
Chicago Astronomical Society, 67
China, 165, 212
Cincinnati Astronomical Society, 55–56
Cincinnati Observatory, 32, 33, 43, 54, 55, 57, 60, 64, 65
civic observatory movement, 53. See also American Observatory Movement
Civil War, 65, 67
Clark, Alvan, & Sons, 64, 67, 71, 79, 85, 86
Clark, Sheldon, 39, 41–42, 70
Clarke, Arthur C., 134, 209
Clark objective lens, 67
Clark University, 111, 123, 133–34, 135, 144, 146, 157
Clary, David, 106, 116, 147–48
Clinton, Bill, 196, 198–99
Cold War, 1, 6, 7, 8, 102, 103, 160–206, 211, 212–13
College of New Jersey, 72
Collins, Arthur, 239 n. 203
Collins, Claude, 129–30
Columbia (space shuttle), 2
comets, 40, 42, 45, 57, 61, 70, 72, 74, 75
commercial spaceflight, 213
communications technology, 3
Communism, 180, 185
Conquest of Space, The (Ley), 3
conspicuous consumption, 7, 213
consumer price index, 13
containment, 185
Coolidge, William, 154
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 21
CORONA satellite, 165
Cottrell, Frederick, 5, 135–36, 156
Cottrell Fund, 135–36, 137
Cuba, 185, 187
Cuban Missile Crisis, 191
Curiosity rover, 212
Curley, James, 47–48
Curran, R. M., 47
Curtiss-Wright Corporation, 153–54, 158
Cutler, Carroll, 42
Daniels, Josephus, 111
Dark Side of the Moon (DeGroot), 204
Dartmouth College Observatory, 70
Davidson, George, 43, 73
Dearborn Observatory, 64, 67–68, 71
Declaration of Independence, 23