Loewy, Raymond, 161
Löffler, Friedrich, 28
Long, Perrin, 279
Los Angeles Times, 260
Louis, Pierre, 14
Louis XVI, King, 12n
Loyd, Earl, 249
Loynd, Harry, 257–58, 279–81, 281n
Ludlow Massacre, 99
Luther, Herb, 233
Lyme disease, 184
lymphocytes, 42–43
Lysenko, Trofim, 144n
lysozyme, 88–89, 91–95, 103, 110, 111
Macfarlane, Gwyn, 112
Macleod, J. J. R., 239
macrophages, 43, 80n, 185, 186
magic bullet, 39, 42, 48, 49, 52, 58, 59, 68, 78, 217, 238–39, 298
Major, Randolph, 2, 153, 161, 162, 195, 198–201
malaria, 52, 63, 99, 152, 163, 176, 177, 220, 224, 234
Malcolm, Wilbur G., 227n
Manhattan Project, 152
Mann, Thomas, 188
margarine, 155n
Marksman, The, 39
Martí-Ibáñez, Félix, 268–74, 279
Massengill, Samuel Evans, 75
Massengill Elixir Sulfanilamide, 75–76, 213n, 264, 281, 282
mast cells, 41, 43, 49
mastitis, 235, 236
Mayo, Charles H., 196
Mayo, William J., 196
Mayo, William Worrall, 195–96
Mayo Clinic, 195–97, 203, 206
Proceedings of the Mayo Clinic, 201
McGuire, James, 238, 240
McKeen, John, 172, 218–19, 222, 223, 227n, 240, 268
Mechnikov, Ilya, 80n
Medical Research Council (MRC), 102–3, 107, 113–14, 121, 127, 128, 149, 155, 156, 173–74, 177, 208
streptomycin trials of, 211–13
Meister, Joseph, 31
Mellanby, Edward, 102, 113, 127, 128, 132, 155–56
Mendeleev, Dimitri, 51
meningitis, 76
mepacrine (Atabrine), 176, 177
meprobamate, 278
Merck, Friedrich Jacob, 158
Merck, George W., Jr., 2, 133, 153, 153n, 159–62, 198, 201–3, 207, 217, 239, 263
Merck, George W., Sr., 159, 160
Merck, Heinrich Emanuel, 158
Merck & Co., 2, 133, 153, 157–64, 166, 168–71, 170n, 176–77, 181, 198–202, 203, 230, 238, 240, 242, 294, 296, 304
Squibb and, 163
Waksman and, 191–92
Merck Institute for Therapeutic Research, 161–62
Merck’s Index, 158
mercurous chloride (calomel), 5, 9, 164
mercury, 8–10, 56, 187, 242
Merthiolate, 56n, 239
Mesmer, Franz, 12
Meticorten, 278
methylene blue, 52
Meyer, Karl, 165
microbiome, 301, 304
microorganisms, 11, 15, 19, 20, 25
connection of disease to, 23–24, 42, 43–44, 47
Koch’s postulates and, 28–29
toxins produced by, 44, 45, 47–48
microrespirometer, 108–10
microscopes, 18–19, 41, 50–51
Mietzsch, Fritz, 64–65, 70, 102
milk:
penicillin in, 236
vitamin D in, 121, 154–55, 165, 230
Miller, Anne, 1–2, 139, 148, 166, 185, 294, 300
Miltown, 278
Mineral Springs Sanatorium, 182, 189, 203
Mintz, Morton, 284
molds and fungi, 90, 93, 94, 131, 165, 171, 192, 236
Molitor, Hans, 161
Monsanto, 160
Moran, Charles Wilson, Lord, 95
Morley, Christopher, 265
morphine, 73, 158, 159
Morrill, Justin Smith, 215n
Morrill Act, 134, 215n
Morris, William, 114, 173
mortality tables, 14
Moyer, Andrew, 136, 136, 138, 151, 156–57, 164, 165
MRSA, 301, 304
Muller, Otto Friedrich, 15
multiple myeloma, 283n
mycobacteria, 194n
Napoleon I, 6–7, 9, 15, 16, 29, 154, 246
Napoleon III, 16, 29, 57
National Academy of Sciences, 100, 202
National Defense Research Committee, 151–52
National Institutes of Health, 153, 165
National Research Council (NRC), 2, 133, 151, 251, 253, 254, 258
Nature, 190, 234
Nebuchadnezzar, King, 207
Neisser, Albert, 55–56
Nelson, Horatio, 148n
Neolithic Demographic Transition (NDT), 183–84
News Chronicle, 149
Newton, Isaac, 49
New York Herald Tribune, 168
New York Society of Security Analysts, 219
New York Times, 71, 75, 85, 222, 232–33, 278
nitrobenzene, 244
Nobel Prize, 35, 48, 50n, 76–77, 97, 98n, 101, 104–5, 105n, 140, 142, 180–81, 200, 206, 266, 296
Northern Regional Research Lab, 135–36, 136, 138–39, 151, 153, 156, 157, 168, 172, 176, 215n, 248, 295
NRTIs, 294
nuclear power, 152
Nuffield, William Morris, Lord, 114, 173
Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust, 114, 127
null hypothesis, 84
Nuremberg Military Tribunals, 210
nux vomica, 242
Nystatin, 270–71
Obama, Barack, 300
O’Brien, Daniel P., 108
Office of Strategic Services, 202
oleandomycin, 271
opiates, 261
opium, 158
opsonins, 85
optochin, 59
Orr-Ewing, Jean, 120, 125
Osler, William, 8, 254–55
OSRD (Office of Scientific Research and Development), 151–53, 156, 165, 171, 177, 178, 243, 277, 296
Ossietzky, Carl von, 77
oxalic acid, 138
oxazolidinones, 303
oxazolone, 174
oxygen, 87
oxytetracycline:
Terramycin, 218–20, 222–25, 228, 229, 233, 236, 237, 240, 254, 271
see also tetracyclines
Palmer, A. Mitchell, 159
Palmer, Lowell, 163
Paracelsus, 8–9, 187, 250
Paré, Ambroise, 207
Parke, Hervey Coke, 241
Parke-Davis, 132–33, 169, 240–44, 261, 270, 280, 281n, 296
Chloromycetin, see Chloromycetin
detail men of, 254, 257–59
FDA and, 259
parrot fever, 247
PAS (para-aminosalicylic acid), 212–13, 272
Pascal, Blaise, 27
Pasteur, Louis, 15–17, 17, 19–22, 24–35, 37, 42, 43, 44, 47, 50, 52, 57, 68, 81, 82, 85, 97, 100, 137, 138, 158, 274, 293
pasteurization, 19
patent medicines, 12, 240, 254, 255
patents, 65–66, 69–70, 154–56, 162–63, 225, 226, 240
Aureomycin, 217
penicillin, 156–57, 169–70
streptomycin, 202–6
Terramycin, 223
tetracycline, 225–27, 233, 277
pathology, 97
Payne, Eugene, 246
Pearson, Karl, 84, 208
Pemberton, John, 73
penicillin, 1, 3, 93–96, 110–19, 120–50, 161, 192, 194, 195, 199, 200, 207–9, 213, 217, 219, 224, 238, 244, 245, 247, 251, 256, 263, 268, 297, 301, 305
allergic reaction to, 262
awareness of, 165–68
be
ta-lactam structure of, 3, 175, 220–21, 304
cheese and, 134n, 138n
clinical trials of, 129–30, 132, 139, 141, 148
Cocoanut Grove fire and, 166–67
crystal structure of, 142, 145–46, 174, 175
discovery of, 89–93, 148–50, 151, 157
fermentation and, 137–38, 141, 156–57, 169, 171, 172, 174, 179
filtration machines for, 123–25, 124
Germany and, 127–28
gonorrhea and, 180
instillation therapy with, 180n
manufacture of, 152–54, 156–57, 164–65, 168–73, 176–81, 198, 202
in milk, 236
Miller case and, 1–2
modified bedpans used for growing, 123, 123, 136, 137
Oxford units of, 137, 165
patents for, 156–57, 169–70
P. notatum, 90, 93, 112, 132–34, 147
price of, 172
P. rubrum, 93, 133
sales of, 224–25
sulfur in, 142, 145
synthesis of, 174, 176–77
penicillinase, 235, 301n
periodic tables, 51
peritonitus, 87n
Perkin, William Henry, 46, 158
pernicious anemia, 230
Perrins, William, 103n
Perutz, Max, 176
Petri, Julius Richard, 28
Pfizer, 133, 138, 153, 164, 165, 168–72, 170n, 176, 181, 203, 223, 225, 227n, 238, 240, 242, 247, 270, 296, 297, 300
advertising of, 228–29
Sigmamycin, 267–68, 271, 273, 279
Terramycin, 218–20, 222–25, 228, 229, 233, 236, 237, 240, 254, 271
Tetracyn, 226–28
Pfizer, Charles, 164
Pfuetze, Karl H., 203
pharmaceutical companies, 296–300, 303
advertising by, 228–29, 258, 267–68, 274, 275, 281
in Britain, 121–22, 141
and communication of information, 256, 268–69
corruption by, 269–71
credibility and, 275
drug safety and, 262–63
Kefauver hearings and, 277–81
in Nazi Germany, 177–78
sales reps (detail men) of, 254–59
in U.S., 132–33, 156, 163, 171
phases, 146, 146
phenol (carbolic acid), 34, 35, 46, 56n, 86, 87, 159
philanthropy, 100, 239
Phipps, James, 13n
phlegm, 7, 14
phocomelia, 282–83
pigs, 233
Pirie, Norman, 107
Plague of Athens, 13, 42, 81
pneumococci, 117, 165, 217
pneumonia, 2, 13, 35, 217, 237
pneumococcal, 76
streptococcal, 59
pneumothorax technique, 189
Polaroid, 222
polysaccharides, 110
Poughon, Julie-Antoinette, 31
Poulenc, Camille, 69
prednisone, 278
Price, Derek de Solla, 154
Priestley, Joseph, 11
Principles and Practices of Medicine, The (Osler), 8
Pringle, Peter, 202
Private Science of Louis Pasteur, The (Geison), 30
Proceedings of the Mayo Clinic, 201
Proceedings of the Society for Experimental and Biological Medicine, 201, 205
prokaryotes, 24–25, 224n
Proloprim, 303
Prontosil, 67–71, 76, 111, 141, 150, 178, 217, 225, 244
protozoans, 52, 224
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, 237
Pseudomonas pyocyanea, 111
psittacosis, 247
puerperal (childbed) fever, 67–68, 72
Pure Food and Drugs Act, 73, 74, 134n, 135
putrefaction, 17–18, 20
Quaker Oats Company, 155
quinine, 176, 220
quinolone antibiotics, 299
rabies, 30–31, 44
racemic acid, 20
Radcliffe Infirmary, 112, 123, 128–30, 139, 141
Raistrick, Harold, 111, 116–17, 134
Ramón y Cajal, Santiago, 101
Raper, Kenneth, 135–36
Rawlins, George, 5
RCTs (randomized controlled trials), 212, 273, 274n, 290, 291
Rebstock, Mildred, 244–45, 247
research laboratories, 37–38
funding for, 57, 100
respirators, 108
Rhodes, Cecil John, 96, 97
Rhodes Scholarships, 96–97
Rhône-Poulenc, 76, 181, 297
Ribicoff, Abraham, 260
Richards, Alfred Newton, 100, 151–53, 161, 167–69, 177, 216, 222, 296
Richards, E. A. H., 103, 110
Richardson-Merrell, Inc., 281–83, 288
rickets, 102, 154, 230
rickettsial diseases, 245–47, 287
Rideout, Jane, 294
Rieveschl, George, 242
Riley, James Whitcomb, 239
Robert Koch Institute, 295
Robinson, Robert, 144, 149, 169–70, 174
Roche, 297
Rockefeller, John D., Jr., 99
Rockefeller, John D., Sr., 99
Rockefeller Foundation, 98–100, 108, 114, 115, 121, 127, 131–33, 145, 156
Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, 114n, 190
Rockefeller University, 295–96
Rocky Mountain spotted fever, 247
Roentgen, Wilhelm, 143
Rokitansky, Carl von, 22
Romer, Kenneth, 65n
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 76, 151–52, 168
Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, Jr., 71, 74
Root, Elihu, 168
Root-Bernstein, Robert Scott, 92
Rose, Wickliffe, 99
Rosengarten, Adolph, 161
Rousseau, Margaret Hutchinson, 172
Roux, Emile, 26, 44
Royal Society, 105, 122, 149, 161
Rubiazol, 69–70
Rubicam, Raymond, 163n
Runge, Friedlieb, 34
Rusby, Henry, 241
Rush, Benjamin, 9–10, 73
Rutgers Research and Endowment Foundation, 191, 202–5, 215n, 216
Rutherford, Ernest, 105n
Sackler, Arthur M., 227–28, 240, 272, 273
St. Mary’s Hospital (London), 68, 82–83, 86, 87, 89–91, 95, 100, 132, 149, 165, 295
Saint Mary’s Hospital (Rochester), 196
sales reps (detail men), 254–59
Salmon, Daniel Elmer, 81n
Salmonella, 237, 245n
S. typhi, 81, 82
salt, 8, 187
Salvarsan (arsphenamine), 55–56, 57–59, 63, 67, 84, 86, 100, 131, 150, 178, 192
sampling, 208–9
sanatoriums, 182, 187–89, 210
Sanders, A. G., 125
Sandoz, 181
sanitation and hygiene, 33–36, 67
Sanofi, 296, 297
santonin, 164
Saturday Review of Literature, 265–70, 276, 277, 280
scarlet fever, 185n
Schatz, Albert, 189–90, 193–95, 193, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203–6, 218, 238, 243
Schering Corporation, 278
Schering-Plough, 296
Schlesinger, Arthur, Jr., 265
Schumpeter, Joseph, 296
Schwann, Theodor, 19
Schwartz, Frederic, 227n
scrofula, 183
scurvy, 207, 230, 231
Seeds of Destruction: A Study in the Functional Weaknesses of Capitalism (Blair), 276
self-li
mited disease, 11–12
Semmelweiss, Ignaz, 67
sepsis, 3, 33
septicemia, 1, 71, 245
septic shock, 111, 237
sequelae, 72
sexually transmitted diseases, 13
chlamydia, 217, 237
gonorrhea, 13, 35, 78, 180
syphilis, see syphilis
Serturner, Friedrich, 158
Shakespeare, William, 35
Sharp & Dohme, 296
Shaw, George Bernard, 79–81
The Doctor’s Dilemma, 79–81, 85, 86, 189
Sheehan, John, 305
Sherman Antitrust Act, 227n
Sherrington, Charles, 98, 101, 102, 105n
Shibasaburo, Kitasato, 44, 45, 55
shigellosis, 197
side-chain theory, 48, 54, 293
Sigmamycin, 267–68, 271, 273, 279
Simpson, James Young, 33
sleeping sickness (trypanosomiasis), 52–56, 69
Smadel, Joseph, 246, 247
smallpox, 13, 42
inoculation against, 13n, 14, 26, 209
Smith, Austin, 281n
Smith, John L., 171–72
Smith-Kline Beecham, 296
Smithsonian Institution, 1, 300
Snow, John, 14–15
Sobin, Ben, 218
soil, 23, 24, 129, 132, 190–95, 199, 213, 216–18, 236, 238, 243–44, 263, 274, 301n
Sorokin, Pitirim, 239n
Soviet Union, 137, 156, 144n, 176n, 246
Spanish-American War, 82
Spectrum, 229
Spooner, J. D., 10
Squibb, 133, 153, 161, 163, 168–71, 174n, 181, 203, 227, 240, 254, 268, 296
Squibb, Edward R., 163
standard setting, 102
Staphylococcus, 61–62, 70, 87, 87n, 194, 198, 235
penicillin and, 89–90, 93, 94, 117, 125, 129, 137n, 147–48, 165, 210
statisticians, 209
Steenbock, Harry, 154–55
stereoisomers, 222
Sterling Winthrop, 296, 298–99
Stevenson, Adlai, 268
Stevenson, Robert Louis, 187n
Stifft, Joseph Andreas von, 21–22
Stokstad, Robert, 231, 232
Stovarsol, 69
strepothricin, 192, 194
Streptococci, 64–68, 69–71, 76, 87, 87n, 117, 165, 185, 194, 198
penicillin and, 93, 94, 120, 125, 129, 147–48, 168
pneumococcus, 117, 165
S. pyogenes, 67–68, 118
streptococcal pneumonia, 59
Streptomyces, 270
S. aureofacions, 216–17
S. erythreus, 238
S. griseus, 195, 201, 216, 231
S. rimosus, 218
S. venezuelae, 243, 247–48
streptomycin, 3, 213, 217–19, 224, 240, 244, 247, 252, 256, 268, 279, 288, 305
clinical trials of, 207–13
discovery of, 189–97, 200, 201, 204–7
PAS and, 212–13, 272
patent on, 202–6