For the early philosophical views of François Duvalier see: Denis, L., and F. Duvalier, La civilisation haïtienne: notre mentalité est-elle africaine ou gallo-latine? Revue Anthropologique 10-12 (1936): 353-73; and their later paper published in 1944, L’évolution stadiale du vodou, Bulletin du Bureau d’Ethnologie 2, no. 12: 1-29. Lorimer Denis and Duvalier also published a number of descriptive ethnographic papers based on their observations of various vodoun rituals.
The connection between vodoun and politics in recent Haitian history is examined in: Bastien, R., Vodoun and politics in Haiti, in Religion and Politics in Haiti, Institute for Cross-Cultural Research, Washington, D.C., 1966; Nichols, D., Politics and religion in Haiti, Canadian Journal of Political Science 3, no. 3 (1970): 400-414; Laguerre, M., Voodoo as religious and political ideology, Freeing the Spirit 3, no. 1 (1974): 23-28; Laguerre, M., Voodoo and politics in contemporary Haiti, paper presented at the conference “New Perspectives on Caribbean Studies: Toward the Twenty-first Century,” Research Institute for the Study of Man and the City University of New York, August 28-September 1, 1984.
Two extremely negative interpretations of the Duvalier years are: Diederich, B., and A. Burt, Papa Doc: The Truth about Haiti Today, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1969, and Rotberg, R., Haiti: The Politics of Squalor, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1971.
Acknowledgments
My research on the zombi phenomenon was undertaken while I was supported by the Social Science and Humanities Research Council of Canada (Doctoral Fellowship). Direct financial support was generously provided by the International Psychiatric Research Foundation, the WennerGren Foundation for Anthropological Research (grant-in-aid 4554) and the National Science Foundation (Doctoral Dissertation Improvement Grant BSN-8411741). My botanical determinations were verified by Professor R. A. Howard of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. Zoological determinations were furnished by the staff of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Valuable bibliographical material was provided by Professor Bo Holmstedt (Karolinska Institute, Stockholm); Dr. Bruce Halstead (World Life Research Institute); Professor C. Y. Kao (Down State Medical Center, Brooklyn); Professor M. G. Smith (Yale University); and Professor R. E. Schultes (Harvard University). I would especially like to thank Professors Smith and Schultes for their intellectual contributions and encouragement. My understanding of Haitian history is deeply indebted to the excellent work of Dr. Gerald Murray (University of Massachusetts, Boston), Dr. Michel Laguerre (University of California, Berkeley) and Jean Fouchard. The preliminary laboratory work was done by Professor Leon Roizin of Columbia University. For other laboratory work and advice I am indebted to Dr. Laurent Rivier (Université de Lausanne) and Professor James Cottrell and Dr. John Hartung (Down State Medical Center). The Zombi Project was born of the vision of three men: Mr. David Merrick, Professor Heinz Lehman, and the late Dr. Nathan S. Kline.
The work in Haiti was made possible by the cooperation and active support of many individuals. Dr. Lamarque Douyon shared his insights concerning medical aspects of zombification and introduced me to Clairvius Narcisse. Medical records were kindly furnished by the staff of the Albert Schweitzer Hospital. In Port-au-Prince I was kindly received and assisted by Leilas Desquiron, Dr. Max Paul, and his staff at the Institut National Haitien de la Culture et des Arts, Eleanor Snare at the Institut Haitiano-Americain, and Lesly Conde at the National Office of Tourism. In rural Haiti I worked directly with several people who openly shared their knowledge. In particular I would like to thank Jean Baptiste, Jacques Belfort and Madame Jacques, Michel Bonnet, Andrés Cajuste, Andrés Celestin, Robert Erie and his wife, Carmine, Ives François, César Ferdinand, Jean-Jacques Leophin, La Bonté, Miriatel, Jean Price-Mars, Solvis Silvaise, and Marcel Pierre. All of these individuals, some of whom are herein identified by pseudonyms, were directly responsible for the success of the project. Finally I would like to acknowledge Herard Simon and Max Beauvoir. Herard Simon and his wife, Hélène, are serviteurs of the most profound awareness. A great houngan, Herard offered his spiritual and physical protection without which this project would never have been completed. Max Beauvoir was also directly responsible for the success of the project. He and his wife, Elizabeth, and his daughters, Rachel and Estelle, offered me their home and generous hospitality as well as their total support at the most critical moments. Rachel worked with me on every phase of the fieldwork and her enthusiasm, courage, and generosity were unfailing. My debt to her, as to all the people of Haiti who received me so kindly, should be readily apparent in the text of the book.
In Virginia, Lavinia Currier gave me a place to sit still long enough to complete the manuscript, portions of which were reviewed by her and Charlie Fisher. Monique Giausserand read the entire manuscript and her comments and advice at each stage of its preparation were invaluable. Raymond Chavez and Harmon and Virginia Stevens kept my spirits up while I was writing, and for technical assistance I am indebted to Timothy Plowman and Penny Matekaitis. My agent, Jane Gelfman, supported the book from the start and introduced me to my editor, Don Hutter, without whose interest and patience this book would not have been completed. Finally, I would like to thank Monique for support and constant love.
WADE DAVIS
The Plains, Virginia
Index
aborigines, Australian, 138
acajou, 194
achuma, 36
Acosta, Christoval, 38
Adèle, 245–46, 249, 262
Afro-American folklore, 207–8
agamonts, 83–84
Agwe, 172
Aizan, 228
Albizzia, 95, 111, 163, 164
Albizzia lebbeck, 111, 116
Albizzia versicolor, 111
Albizzia zygia, 111
Algonquin Indians, 39
aloe, 100
Amazon, 15–22, 173
ammonia, 162
amnesia, 166, 180, 187
Andersen, Hans Christian, 133
Anderson, Marna, 23, 24, 33, 109–110, 111
anesthesia, 21, 30–31
anthropology, 53, 173, 178–79, 207, 208, 234
Arawakan Indians, 45, 94, 198
arrondissements, 233
arrow and dart poisons, 21, 88, 110, 111, 113
Artibonite Valley, 104
asphyxiation, 42, 113
asson, 48
asthma, 56
atelopid frogs, 165
atropine, 166
Ausherman, Jay, 63, 79
autopsies, 132–33
autoscopic near-death experience (NDE), 140–42
ave, 162
ayahuasca, 17
Ayia Eleni, Greece, 51
Ayida Wedo (Rainbow), 176–77
bagi, 54, 261
Bahoruco Mountains, 193
Balantes people, 196
Bando, Mitsugora, VIII, 121
“baptism,” of zombis, 187
Baptiste, Jean, 227–28, 230, 232–33, 235–39, 241–44, 247, 249
Baron Samedi, 210, 221, 227, 257
bayahond leaves, 162
BBC, 28–29, 30, 31, 44, 52, 60, 87, 97, 101, 217
Beauvoir, Max, 44, 46–47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55, 56, 57, 64–65, 73–74, 82, 84–85, 89–91, 101, 102, 104, 148, 155, 172, 188, 213, 217–18, 223–24, 241
Beauvoir, Rachel, 50, 52–54, 56, 73–79, 83–85, 91–92, 97, 99, 102, 145–50, 155–57, 158, 161, 162, 218–21, 237, 240–44, 248, 249, 250, 254, 259–63, 266
Belfort, Jacques, 148–49, 154–55
Belfort, Mme. Jacques, 149–50, 151–52, 154–55, 168
belladonna, 38
Berkeley, George, 133
berserkus, 116
Bête Sereine, 229, 242
Biassou, 202–3, 204, 205, 206
Bizango, see secret societies
black magic, 100
Black Republic, The (St. John), 208
“blasting a black’s ass,” 191
blowfish, 95, 116–26, 130, 163–64, 167
blue-ringed oct
opus, 165
Boas, Franz, 206, 207
bois ca-ca, 100
bois chandelle, 100
bokors:
houngans vs., 47, 55, 83, 96–97, 140
magical powers of, 101, 167, 185–186, 187, 215
religious role of, 46–47, 60, 62, 76, 80, 82, 96, 99, 125, 139–40, 265
Bolívar, Simon, 70
Botanical Museum (Harvard), 16, 35, 37, 107–9
botetes, 125
bourreaus, 81, 236
Boyer, Jean Pierre, 69
brain damage, 29–30
brain scans, 26
brainwashing experiments, 59
bresillet, 163, 194
Buddhism, 51
bufogenin, 114
Bufo marinus, 84, 95, 112–16, 117, 162, 163, 164, 167
bufotenine, 115–16
bufotoxin, 114
Bufo vulgaris, 113
Burial Act (1900), 133
burials, premature, 25, 38, 61, 123–24, 131–42
Burton, Lady, 133
Bwa Caiman, 247, 248
bwa piné, 163
caciques, 198
cadavre gâté, 100, 151
cako, 102
Calabar bean, 34–43, 56–57, 59, 61, 101, 110, 112
California newt, 165
Cameron, Ewen, 59
canari, 182
cane syrup, 164
cannibalism, 208, 210, 237, 249, 251
caotchu, 94
cardiograms, 26
Caribbean Indians, 40
Carlisle, Anthony, 133
Carrefour, 228
Carrefour Road, 46, 86, 241
cashew tree, 163
cata, 48
catalepsy, 134, 135
cataplexy, 134, 135
catatonic schizophrenia, 61, 135
Catholicism:
as official religion of Haiti, 70–71, 85
vodoun vs., 72–73, 85, 170–71, 205, 256
Cavendish, Ada, 133
Cazamance people, 196
cèdre, 100
Celestin, Andrés, 202, 258–63, 265, 266
Centre de Psychiatrie et Neurologie, 27, 57–58, 64, 79, 80
ch’an su, 113–14
chasseur, 236, 252
chef de section, 234–35, 238, 257
chef d’état-majeur, 236
Chibcha Indians, 38
chiri, 120, 123
Choco Indians, 113
cholera, 110
Christophe, Henri, 67, 68–69, 205, 206
CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 59, 117
Ciguatoxin, 165–66
cimora, 37
clairin, 151, 162, 167, 228
Clavijero, Francisco Javier, 125
Clermezine nightclub, 78–79, 156, 218
cocaine, 118
Cochons Gris, 209, 210
Cochons sans Poils, Les, 206
Collins, Wilkie, 133
Columbus, Christopher, 40, 44–45
communes, 233
“Congo Bean stew,” 208
consigne, 163
convoi, 154
Cook, James, 119
corps cadavre, 181, 182, 186, 223
corpses, 92–93, 95
cortisone, 75
coup l’aire, 83, 146–47, 220, 225, 236, 237
coup n’âme, 237
coup poudre, 83, 220, 237
crapaud bouga, 84
crapaud de mer, 84, 95, 112–16, 117, 162, 163, 164, 167
Creole, 72, 79, 192, 218
curanderos, 35–37, 57
curare, 21, 88, 113
cyanide, 118
cyanosis, 108, 116, 121, 123, 125
Dahomey, 41, 49
Damballah (Serpent), 177, 183, 266
Darien Gap, 17–21
dart and arrow poisons, 21, 88, 110, 111, 113
datura, 35–43, 56, 57, 59–60, 61, 104, 112, 164–65
Datura metel, 56
Datura stramonium, 37, 39–40
death:
clinical, 181, 182–83
as “mort bon Dieu,” 185
pallor of, 26, 134
rituals for, 182
“sham,” 134–36
signs of, 25–26, 133–34
“social,” 140
unnatural, 185, 186
death certificates, 26, 213
death spirit, 153
dehydration, 138
delirium, 116
Delphic oracle, 178
départments, 233
dermatitis, 163
desmembre, 163
Dessalines, Jean-Jacques, 67, 68, 205
Dessounin, 182
Deuteronomy, 118
dhatureas, 38
digestive problems, 108, 122
digitalis, 114
dinoflagellate, 165
Diodon hystrix, 125
djab, 220, 221, 227, 231
Djo, 183
Dr. No (Fleming), 117
dokte feuilles, 184
dolls, wooden, 136
Domingue, 166
Dostoyevsky, Feodor, 133
Douce, Francis, 135
Douyon, Lamarque, 27, 28–29, 31, 44, 57–63, 64, 80, 81
drugs:
mental illness treated with, 22, 59, 63
neurotropic, 127
psychoactive, 17, 31, 58, 88, 114, 115–16, 187
“set” vs. “setting” of, 130
see also specific drugs
drums, ceremonial, 48, 49, 243
D-tubocurarine, 21
Duboisia myoporoides, 166
dumbcane, 163
Dutty, Boukman, 201, 202, 204, 247
Duvalier, François, 32, 58, 87, 156, 227, 255–57
Duvalier, Jean-Claude, 82, 226
Duvalier, Michelle, 82
Eagle Bar, 53–54, 93, 98, 145
ecstasy, 135
Efik tribe, 41–43, 111, 195
Egbo (leopard society), 41–43, 195
electroshock therapy, 59, 142
elephantiasis, 149, 160
embalming, 133
Ennery, 79
Erié, Robert, 232–33, 235, 250, 258
Erzulie Dantor, 227
Erzulie Freda, 171, 172, 179
esprit, 182
evil, good vs., 94, 101, 187–88
evil eye, 137
Fabing, Howard, 115–16
fainting spells, 135
faith healing, 137
fakirs, 29
fear, as cause of physiological changes, 137–38
Felix-Mentor, Felicia, 213–15
firewalkers, 49–51
Fleming, Ian, 117
floating sensation, 81, 121, 141–42
formic acid, 163
fou-fou, 117
foxglove, 114
François, Jean, 202, 204, 205, 206
French Revolution, 65
Freudian psychiatry, 22
frogs, 152, 153, 163, 167
From Russia with Love (Fleming), 117
fugu, 120–24, 130
Fukada, T., 125
Fulani tribe, 40
fwet kash, 229
gall bladders, ground, 152
Gitksan Indians, 98
“giving up/given up” complex, 137
Glycas, Nicephorus, 132
goby fish, 165
Gonaives, Haiti, 155–56
govi, 182, 183
Grans Bwa, 57, 147, 228
Great Herbals, 118
Griots, Les, 256
gros bon ange, 181, 186
guaiac, 100
Guede, 147, 172
Guinée, 67, 72, 190, 215, 227, 244, 247
gunpowder, 152
Haiti:
African influences in, 70, 71–72, 194, 195–96, 201, 207, 219, 256
agrarian economy of, 67–70
appearance vs. reality in, 85, 87, 217
Catholicism as official religion of, 70–71, 85
civil government of, 233–35, 255–257
French colonization of, 44�
��45, 65–68, 102, 188, 189–206, 210, 212, 232
history of, 40–45, 65–72
international relations of, 70–71
legal system of, 28, 60, 158
peasant culture of, 71–73
rural vs. urban society in, 51–52, 71–72
U.S. occupation of, 102, 171, 208–9, 256
vodoun as basis of society in, 12, 72–73, 110, 183–84, 212
hallucinogens, 17, 88, 114, 115–16
Halstead, B. W., 122
handshakes, secret, 194, 195, 211
Han Dynasty, 118
Hausa tribe, 40
healing trees, 151
health, as spiritual equilibrium, 183–84
heartbeat, 26, 134
Hector Victor, 260–61
henbane, 38
herbals, 113, 118–19
Herskovits, Melville, 206
hex, 136
hibernation, 31, 129, 135
Holmstedt, Bo, 109–12
hoodoo, 207, 208
Hotel Ollofson, 46, 50
hounfour:
as center of healing, 149, 184
religious function of, 47, 53, 73, 74
as social center, 212
houngan macoute, 87
houngan nieg, 241
houngans:
bokors vs., 47, 55, 83, 96–97, 140
as healers, 147, 183–84
religious role of, 44, 48, 52, 56, 72–75, 87, 96, 148, 176, 182, 183–84
social role of, 212, 235, 238, 256
hounsis, 47, 48, 49–50, 53
hounsis canzo, 98
huaca, 39
Hurston, Zora Neale, 206–11, 212, 213–15
Hyacinthe, 201, 247
hypertension, 61, 108, 114, 116, 122, 125
hypnosis, 63, 135
hypotension, 26, 123
hypothermia, 61, 108, 122, 123
ibok usiak owo, 111
Ibo tribe, 41
ichthyotoxicology, 117
Illeus, Francina, see Ti Femme
Illeus, Mercilia, 77–78
illness, psychological factors in, 137–38
immortality, spiritual, 184–85
Invisibles, Les, 182
Isabella, Queen of Spain, 44
Isnard, 221–24, 238, 241–44, 249
itching pea, 95, 110, 163
Japanese cuisine, 120–24
Jean, 92, 93, 94, 95, 97, 99
Jivaro Indians, 39
Josef Jean, 80
Joseph, Natagette, 27
Josephine, 248, 249, 257–58