intermixing, 211–12, 213, 214
International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), 185, 229
Iran, 44, 61, 65, 81, 87, 92, 101–02
Iranian agriculturists, migration into south Asia, 84–85, 93–97, 133
Iranian language, 163
Iranians, 179
Iraq, 65, 101, 104n
Ireland, 199
iron, 194–95
irrigation system, Uruk, Lower Mesopotamia, 123–24
Islam, 204
Israel, 31, 45
Jainism, 45, 209, 213, 214, 216
Jambudvipa, southern petal of, 45–61
Japan, 43
japonica, 157–58, 159
Jarrige, Jean-François, 67, 82, 83, 134
Jebel Irhoud, Safi, Morocco, ix, 18
jewellery and artefacts, Harrapan Civilization, 99, 108, 109, 116, 196
Jews, 182, 202, 203
Jordan, 31
Jurreru river valley, Kurnool district, Andhra Pradesh, 54, 56
Jwalapuram, Andhra Pradesh, 54–57, 204
Kacchi plain, Balochistan, 80, 99, 101, 121
Kalaka forest, 209
Kalat, 121
Kalibangan, xi, 117, 122, 185, 193, 224, 225
Kallar, 211
Kannada, 137, 145, 151
Kashmir, 81
Katha Upanishad, 195
Kazakh Steppe, xi, 167
Kazakhstan, 92, 179, 180
Kebara cave, 32
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark, 104, 110, 114, 115–16
Kenyanthropus platyops, 18
Khadir, 118
Khasi, 154, 161
Khotanese Saka and Wahi, 197n
Khuzistan, 135
Kili Gul Mohammed, Quetta valley (5000 BCE), 121
Konkani, 205
Korisettar, Ravi, 43, 51, 55–56
Korku, 154
Kortik Tepe, 78n
Kot Diji, 74, 122, 123
Krasnosamarskoe, Samara river valley, 178
Kunal, Haryana, 121
Kurgan Hypothesis, 173–74, 177
kurgans (burial mounds), 170, 172
Kuwait, 101
Lahuradewa, Sant Kabir Nagar, Uttar Pradesh, xi, 82, 96, 136, 157, 180
Lal, B.B., 193
language of Harappans, 130–42, 149–54
deciphering the script, 143–48
Laos, 154, 155
Latin, 214
Levant, 31–32, 33, 35–37, 46, 48, 51, 65, 75, 77–80
Lida Ajer cave, Sumatra, Indonesia, 38, 39
lineage, 16, 17, 24, 26–27, 30–31, 53, 57–59, 85, 90–91, 95, 97, 164, 166, 204, 207, 220
maternal, 22, 23, 156
Little Andaman, 57
Liverani, Mario, 103–04, 123–24
Loralai, 121
Lothal, 8, 159, 196
Luwian language, 135
Madhya Pradesh, 13, 50, 53, 55, 62, 82, 154
Madjedbebe, Australia, 38, 39
Magadha, 205–13, 215, 216–17
Mahabharata, 215
Mahadevan, Iravatham, 143–47
Maharashtra,
Dravidian place names, 150–51
languages, 154
Maikop culture, 170, 172
Makran coast, 71
Malayalam, 137
Malaysia, 154, 155
male ancestry, 174, 181–82
Malwa, 81
Manusmriti (Manava Dharma Shastra), 211
Marathi, 163, 205
Marine Isotope Stages (MIS), 29–30, 33
MIS 2, 53
MIS 4, 43
marine resources, 36, 41n
Marx, Karl, 220
Maurya empire, Mauryas, 117, 119, 209, 210, 212
Mawmluh cave, 230
McAlpin, David W., 137–38, 140–42
Meadow, R.H., 70
Mediterranean, x, 65
cult of the Mother Goddess, 174
Minusinsk basin, Russia, 175, 179
Meghalaya, 154
Meghalayan age, 185, 229–30
Mehrgarh, x, xi, 121, 139
beginning of agriculture, 82–83, 96, 120, 134, 180 and Mesopotamia, relations, 135
miracle in, 65–74
population growth, 97
route to, 80–84
urbanization, 101
west Asian parallels, 74–75, 82–84
Zagros, 135–36
Mehtakheri, Madhya Pradesh, 53, 54. See also Nimar
Meitei language of Manipur, 158, 161
Melanesians, 4
Meluhha, 103, 192
Meru, 45–46
Mesopotamia, 82, 118, 134–35, 186, 191–92
Mesopotamian Civilization, 6, 101, 135–36, 142, 147
and the Harappan Civilization, cultural interaction/trade relations, 102–06
metallurgy, 173, 187
Microlithic tools, microliths, x, 49, 50, 53–54, 56, 63, 67
Middle Ganga, 82
Middle Kingdom of Chinese, 5
Middle Son valley, Madhya Pradesh, 50, 52
migrations, 62, 84, 86–87, 88, 91, 135–36, 168–69, 205. See also Indo-European languages; Out of Africa (OoA) migration
chronology, 139
direction of, 41, 89, 90, 95–96
and languages, 152, 155–56, 158, 161–62
and rice farming, 154, 157–59
Milky Way galaxy, 1–2
Misliya, north Israel, 31
mleccha-desa, 208, 209
Mohenjo-daro, 59–60, 97, 101, 104, 107–08, 111–13, 117, 126, 128, 185, 188, 189
Mon-Khmer languages, 154
monsoons, 36, 56, 81, 111, 126, 185
Morocco, ix, 18, 33
Mughals, 200, 203
Munda languages, 154, 156–57
Mundari, 154, 161
Mundas, 159
Mundigak, south-eastern Afghanistan (4000–3500 BCE), 121
Mureybit, 77
mutations, 20–22, 27, 42, 47–48, 62, 85, 217–18
13910T, 218
PCX, 22
Myanmar, 42, 52
Nal, 74, 122
Nandas, 210
Narmada, 49, 62
Natufian culture, 76–77
Nausharo, 74, 123
Nazis, 182–84
Neanderthals, x, 2, 4, 8, 18, 32, 33, 35, 37n, 38, 50, 62–63
Neolithic, 71, 72, 83–84, 87, 134, 181
Neolithization process, 75
Nepal, 154
Netherlands: Bell Beaker culture, 173
Nicobarese, 154
Nimar, Madhya Pradesh, 53
nomadic groups, 84
Norris, Edwin, 139
Norse mythology, 5
Northern Route to Asia from Africa, 35
Oman, 192
Omo Kibish, Ethiopia, 18
Onge, 46–47, 48, 57, 155–56
Oppenheimer, Stephen, 43, 51, 56
Orissa, 151
Oriya, 205
ornamentation, 70–71
Oryza sativa, 157
Out of Africa (OoA) migration, ix, x, 7, 13, 18, 19, 27n, 30–33, 36–39, 42, 44–45, 46, 52, 55, 59, 81, 152, 159, 161, 164–65, 170, 203, 221
dating, 26–28, 203
Oxus river (Amu Darya), xi, 168
Oxygen-18, 29
Padmanabhapuram Palace, 126–27
Pahari, 205
Pakistan, 45, 101
palaeoclimate, 64
palaeodeserts, 36
Palaeolithic tools, 49–50, 54–56
Pandiyas, 146
Panti, 146–47
Papuans, 4
Pariyatra mountains, 208
Parpola, Asko, 103, 104, 143, 147, 148
Parsis, 202, 203
Pashto, 130
pastoralism, 70, 74, 122, 149, 161, 201
and domesticated animals, 150
pastoral economy, 199
Pataliputra, 210
Patanjali, 209, 210
Mahabhasya, 208, 211
Patne, Maharashtra, 54
Patter
son, Nick, 87, 88
peepul tree, Harappan Civilization, 115, 128–30, 144, 196
permanent settlements, 205
Persian Gulf, Iran, 135
Petraglia, Michael, 9, 31, 36, 37, 55
petroglyphs, 14
phallus worship, Harappan Civilization, 188–89, 191
Pharaoh, 147
phylogeny, phylogenetic tree, 42, 84
phylogeography of different haplogroups, 85, 86
Pirak, Balochistan, 180
pizza metaphor, 61, 63, 97, 187, 203, 204–05
plague outbreaks, 184–85
Pleiades, 148
Pleistocene, 33, 193
Pollock, Sheldon, 8, 200n, 214–15
population
density, 75–76
expansion in South Asia, 54–55
formulation, Indian, 89–90
groups, genetics/genetic variations, 9, 17, 84
structure of south Asia, 89
structure of today’s India, 61, 152, 181, 207, 211, 218
Portuguese (language), 163
pottery
Harappan Civilization, 72, 101, 115–16, 134
Mesopotamia, 107–08
Yamnaya, 173
power relationships, Harappan civilization, 100–01, 196
practices and belief systems, 159
Prakrit, 200
Priest King sculpture, Mohenjo-daro, 104, 107
Proto-Dravidian, 132, 149, 151, 152, 161
Proto-Elamite, 135–36
Proto-Indo-European language, 169, 172–73
public infrastructure, Harappan Civilization, 111–19
Punjab, 101, 151, 164, 185, 205, 223, 228
Punjabi, 130, 163, 205
pyramids of Egypt, 107, 109
Qafzeh cave, 31, 32
Quetta, 121
Rahman Dheri, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan, xi, 121, 122
Rajasthan, xi, 81, 101, 149, 164, 223
Rajasthani, 205
Rakhigarhi, Haryana, xi, 8, 60, 93n, 117, 121, 224
Ramayana, 215
Ratnagar, Shereen, 8, 109, 121, 122–23, 126
Ravi, 122
Red Sea, ix, 32n, 33, 35, 36, 41
Reich, David, 8, 87–88, 91, 173–75, 181–82, 211, 215
religion, religious and cultural practices, xii, 100
‘Aryans’, 187–88
Harappan Civilization, 126–30
paradigm shift, 190
Uruk, Lower Mesopotamia, 125
Renfrew, Colin, 184
rice farming, xi, 82, 154, 157–58, 159, 201
Richards, Martin B., 8, 10, 11, 181
Rigveda. See Vedas
Roma, 164–65
Rosetta Stone, 131–32
Rub’ al Khali, 44
Russia, 64, 166
Russian, 163
sacrificial rituals, 142, 209–10, 212
Sahara, 35
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 18
Sakas (Scythians), 200, 203
sand desert, 44
sandstone, use in architecture, 119
Sanskrit, 88, 142, 147, 162, 163, 167, 169, 178, 197, 200, 207, 208, 214, 221. See also Aryans; Indo-European languages
Santali, 154
Sarasvati river, 192, 208, 223–28. See also Ghaggar–Hakra
Sarasvati, 223–24
‘Sarasvatikantabharana’, 200
Sarasvati Civilization. See Harappan Civilization
Sargon, Akkadian emperor, 102–03, 106
Saudi Arabia, 33, 36, 101
savannah zone, 149
seal motifs, designs, architecture and sculptures
Harappan Civilization, 101–06, 109–10, 115, 127–29, 131, 143, 144, 147, 180, 186, 188, 191, 192, 195–97
Mesopotamia, 102–04, 106, 147
seashells, 70
sedentary settlement, sedentism, 75, 76, 82
Semitic languages of Mesopotamian Civilization, 135, 142
sequential slab construction, 72
sesame, 103–04, 142
sexual dimorphism, 68, 79
Shahr-i-Sokhta, Iran, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 168–69
Shankara, 216
shell middens, 41n, 43
Shinde, Vasant, 92
shishna-deva, 188, 195
Shivalik Hills, 50, 223
Shortughai, Afghanistan, 184
Siberia, x, 45, 50
Sicily, 33
Siddis, 203
Sinai peninsula, 33, 35
Sindh, 151, 164, 223
Sindhi, 130
Singh, Lalji, 9, 10, 19, 87, 88, 89
Sintashta, 175, 177–78, 179, 184
Siva, depiction in Harappan seals and motifs, 195–96
Skhul cave, Israel, 31, 32, 48
sky garments, 104, 106
Samara, 166
social hierarchy, 212, 214
social relations, 75, 208–09, 214, 215
Sothi, 122
south and central Asia, genomic formation, 11
south Asia, x, xii, 37, 49, 113–14, 196, 201, 210
agriculture, xi, 65, 97, 140
archaic humans, 51, 53–57, 62–63
‘Aryans’, 161, 165, 166
Austroasiatic languages, 152, 154, 155
domestication of animals and plants, 84, 139
earliest modern human fossil, 42
and Europe, parallels, 180–86
genetic analysis, 85
genetic diversity, 62
Indo-European languages, 12, 142, 144
microliths, 53
modern human population, 116
population structure, 89
Steppe migrations, 167–69, 170, 173, 175, 177, 179–80, 208
Zagrosian migrations, 27, 43, 44, 45, 48, 84, 102, 135–36, 139, 149
south-east Asia, x, xii, 31, 37, 47, 55, 61, 63, 93, 219
‘Aryans’, 162
Austroasiatic languages, 152, 154–56, 158
archaic humans, 52
fossil finds, 44
modern humans, 39, 43
Steppe migration, 179–80
Southern Route, ix, 35–37, 41n, 42
Southworth, Franklin C., 150–51, 205, 207, 209
Spain, x, 33
Sri Lanka, 42–43, 53, 56
Srubnaya, 175, 178
Steppe
ancestry, 168–70, 175, 207–08, 211
migrations, 161, 167–70, 175, 205
pastoralists, and Harappans, xii, 88, 142, 168–69, 178, 181, 184, 197, 205. See also Ancestral North Indian (ANI); Yamnaya
Steppe-MLBA_East, 179
Steppe-MLBA_West, 179
Stonehenge, 173
storage structures, Harappan Civilization, 67, 73, 112
storm water drain, Dholavira, 112
Strait of Gibraltar, 33
Sudras, 212, 213
Sumatra, Indonesia, 16, 55
Sumerian language, 131, 132, 135
Sungas, 210
Surkotada, Gujarat, 193–94
Susa, 106
Sutkagan Dor, Makran coast, 184
Sutlej, 223–24, 226
Swat valley, Pakistan, xi, 81, 92, 95, 168–69
Switzerland, 173
Syria, 31, 45
Syrians, 202, 203
Tabun cave, Israel, 32
Tajikistan, xi, 92, 167, 168
Tamil, 137, 146, 147
Brahmi script, 143
and Elamite, connection, 139–40
Tani languages of Arunachal Pradesh, 158
Taurus, 44
technology, 7, 25, 46. See also tool technology
Microlithic, x, 54–56
Telugu, 137, 146
Thailand, 42, 154, 155
Thangaraj, K., 9, 10, 87, 88, 92
Tibetans, 47
Tibeto-Burman languages, 152, 154, 156, 158, 159, 203
tigers, 104
Toba supervolcanic eruption, 15, 37, 55, 56
Tocharian, 175
t
ools, tool technology, 2, 6, 13, 39, 51, 53–55, 99, 138
bone tool assemblages, 77
stone tools and implements, 43, 46, 49, 53, 72
town planning and mathematical precision, Harappan Civilization, 119
trading and exchange networks, 70–71
Uruk, Lower Mesopotamia, 125
tribal groups, tribals, 204, 211, 213
Tunisia, 33
Turan, 92, 94, 179
Turkey, 45, 94, 101
Turkmenistan, xi, 92, 93, 167
Underhill, Peter A., 166
unicorn, 127–28, 188, 196
Upanishads, 195, 213–14, 220
Urals, 177, 179
Urartian language, 135
urban civilization
Elam, 135
of Mohenjo-daro, Harappa, Dholavira, Rakhigarhi etc., 59–60, 97
urbanization,
India, 187, 201, 209, 213, 228
Mesopotamia, 123
Ursa Major constellation, 148
Uruk, Lower Mesopotamia, 117, 123–25, 126
Ushas, 192
Uttar Pradesh, 101, 151, 185, 228
Uzbekistan, xi, 92, 167, 168
varna system, 212
Varuna, 186, 188
Vasistha Dharma Sutra, 209
Vedas, Vedic culture, 88, 162, 170, 197, 219
and Harappan Civilization, disconnect, 142, 143–45, 187–89, 191–93
Rigveda, 142, 144, 177, 178, 188, 191, 192, 194–95, 197, 212, 223, 224
vegetarianism, 218
Vietnam, 154, 155, 162
Vindhya region, xi, 52, 81, 207, 211
violence, lack of representation, Harappan Civilization, 109–11
Wadi-an-Natuf, 76
wagon, 172, 199
warrior youth bands, 199
water buffaloes, 102–03
water management technology and drainage system, Harappan Civilization, 111–14
weights and measures, Harappan Civilization, 114–15
Mesopotamia, 114–15
west Asia, xii, 6, 61, 65, 90, 170
farming and pastoralism, 74, 87, 220–21
genetic and archaeological evidence, 133
and Harappan Civilization, 74–80, 81–84, 103–04, 109, 122, 220–21
language, 134, 162, 163
Neolithic period migrations from, 87
royal burials, 109
West Siberia, 94
West Siberian Haplogroup, 179
Westway, Kira, 38
wetland farming, 201
wheel,
Harappan Civilization, 97, 118, 143–44, 172
Yamnaya, 172
Wheeler, Robert Eric Mortimer, 186
World War II, 182
writing, 117, 118, 131, 138–40
Yadava clan, 207
Yamnaya (Steppe pastoralists), 169, 170–73, 178, 184, 187, 199
male ancestry, 174, 181
and Neolithic farmers, 198
successor cultures, 175–76
Yamuna, 208–10, 223–27
Yangtze and Yellow river valleys of China, 155, 157
Y-chromosome, 21–25, 27, 57, 58–59, 84, 85, 156, 174–75, 181–82
haplogroup R1a, 165–67; subclade, R1a-M417, 165–66; R1a-Z282 and R1a-Z93, 166–67, 179–80
Yemen, ix, 33, 39, 41, 42
Yersinia pestis, 184