with relaxed radical-stroke system, 302–303, 304
reorganized by Mao-era typists, 286, 288–290, 300, 307–308
on Shu-style typewriter, 163–164, 364n1, 366n19
sold blank by manufacturers, 311
special usage region of, 163, 295, 297, 298, 303
as territorial expanse, 191–192, 320
training drills on, 179–180, 181f, 370n51, 371n55
visibility of characters on, 270
on Yu Binqi typewriter, 217
Zhou Houkun’s “popular
treaty ports in China, 64, 127
trigraph coded transmission (telegraphy), 117, 120, 356n76
“truth script
Tsinghua University, 244
Tsugi Kitahara, 204
Turkle, Sherry, 198
Twain, Mark, 177
two-character compounds (ci), 180, 241, 286, 289, 291, 295–296, 306, 397n50
Two Lists of Selected Characters Containing All in the Bible and Twenty Seven Other Books (Gamble), 81, 87
type, materiality of, 17
type-and-copy shops (dazi tengxieshe), 284
type-and-mimeograph editions (dayinben), 285–286, 287f
type design. See under movable type
type lever (typewriter part), 30, 148
“Types de Charles X” (Legrand), 91
typesetters, Chinese, 82–84, 132 natural-language experimentation and, 290–295
as “nomadic,” 83–84, 85
typesetters, Western, 81–88, 102, 348n16
typewriter, Arabic, 60, 61–63, 64, 344n52, 345n54 Jones keyboard for, 182, 187
Olivetti model, 56, 58f
typewriter, Chinese aurality of, 27, 29–30, 198
challenge of creating, 25, 138–140
functional mechanics of, 30, 199
history of textual reproduction and, 170–171
how to identify documents typed on, 283–284
impact of, 24
linguistic ambidexterity of, 226, 379n39
measured against Western typewriter, 23–24, 27–32, 125, 164–165, 188, 190
merits of, 170–171
as monstrous imagined object, 35–44, 36f, 37f, 38f, 45, 65, 71–72, 192f, 192–193, 203, 316, 320–321
national identity and, 229
and personal relationship with user, 163–164, 198
in popular culture, 35–40, 321
as symbol of modernity, 124–125
transnational nature of, 33
used for state documents, 283–284
used in Korean war, 280, 280f
used to reproduce books, 285–286
Western criticism of, 188
See also typewriter models, Chinese
typewriter, Hebrew, 60–61, 64, 343n45
typewriter, Japanese, 200, 206f adaptability to Chinese, 209, 211
dual modes of, 200, 209
H-Style, 218
Japanese Smith Typewriter (sumisu taipuraitā), 202
kana-based, 202–204
kanji-based, 204–205, 226, 378n38
market for in occupied China, 222
Remington and Underwood models, 202–204
retrofitted to handle Chinese, 226, 385n100
sound of, 223
Sugimoto kanji typewriter, 204–205
training regimens on, 203
used in occupied China, 213
Western denigration of kanji-based, 210–211
typewriter, Romance language, 60
typewriter, Russian, 60, 64
typewriter, Siamese, 45–55, 49f, 53f change to shift-keyboard design, 51–53
invention and design of, 45–50
“Typewriter, The” (musical piece, Anderson), 27
typewriter, Turkish, 182
typewriter, Urdu, 182, 187
typewriter, Western aurality of, 27–30, 58, 340n32
Chinese response to, 24–25
compared to machine gun, 28
early diversity of, 42, 44, 45, 56
encounter with Chinese script, 44, 63–65
essence of, 41
expansion to foreign scripts, 44, 46, 53–54, 63, 123
in film, 28
functional mechanics of, 41, 59
globalization of, 55–64, 124
iconic nature of, 24, 28, 71, 74
inability to encompass Chinese, 123–124, 129, 139, 200
revolutionary nature of, 23
as symbol of modernity, 124
as “true” typewriter, 124–125, 164–165, 188
universality claimed for, 64, 71, 73f
See also shift-keyboard typewriter; typewriter form, universal; typewriter models, Western
typewriter art, 203
“typewriter boy,” nonexistent, 177
typewriter form, universal, 59 confronted with Chinese, 64–65
as constitutive of technolinguistic consciousness, 74
stretched by foreign scripts, 60, 61
See also shift-keyboard typewriter
“typewriter girl,” 173, 176–177
typewriter industry, Chinese formation of, 170–172
Japanese domination of, 200, 212, 214, 217, 220–221, 223–225, 232, 235
in postwar period, 230–233, 387n115
thriving in 1940s, 229
typewriter models, Chinese Brumbaugh patent, 151, 152f
Double Pigeon, 195, 199, 233–235, 234f
Grant and Legros Chinese phonetic typewriter, 183–184
Hammond Multiplex, 185
Horizontal-style machine, 228
improved Shu-style machine, 224
Japanese-built Chinese machines, 212, 213, 228, 274, 378n38
MingKwai, 237, 243, 244–247, 263–281, 268–269f, 273f, 275f, 316, 392–393n54 (see also Lin Yutang)
“Mr. Fan Wanneng Chinese Typewriter
“People’s Welfare Typewriter,” 230, 231f
pre-MingKwai prototype, 391–392n38
Qi Xuan typewriter, 147–159, 148f, 204, 265
“Reformed” typewriter of 1956, 303
Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter, 182–183, 184f, 187, 265
Sheffield typewriter, 126–137, 133f, 140, 166, 167, 359n36, 359n38
Shu-style typewriter, 161–164, 162f, 167–169, 170–172, 175, 182, 188–191, 189f, 191f, 197, 212, 224, 265, 274, 308, 364n1, 366n14, 366n19
Standard Horizontal-Vertical-style Chinese-Japanese Typewriter, 226
Standard-style machine, 228
Suganuma-style machine, 228
Superwriter, 196–199, 200, 233–235, 374n2
Underwood Chinese National Phonetic Typewriter, 185, 186–187
Wang Kuoyee patent, 151, 153f
Wanneng (“All-Purpose”) typewriter, 223–224, 224f, 228, 230–232, 233, 235, 302–303
Yu Binqi typewriter, 216–220, 224, 380n61, 381n71
Zhou Houkun typewriter, 138–145, 144f, 146f, 148, 149, 156–159, 165–167
typewriter models, multi-language “Oriental Type-Writer
“Universal Eastern alphabet typewriter” (Tcherkassov and Hill), 62–63
typewriter models, Western American Visible Typewriter, 42
Circular Index, 46
Hall Typewriter, 46
Hammond models, 391n36
Hughes Typewriter for the Blind, 46
index typewriters, 46, 56, 131, 343n37
Lambert typewriter, 42
L.C. Smith & Brothers “Standard
Malling-Hansen Writing Ball, 42
Mignon, 343n37
Olivetti Lettera 22, 27, 71, 72f
Remington Number 7, 55
Remington Number 10, 55
Sholes and Glidden Type-Writer, 46
Smith-Corona Elliott model, 202
Smith Premier Number 4, 47, 51
Underwood Number 1, 342n30
See also double-keyboard typewriter; shift-keyboard typewriter
“Typewriter Tip Tip Tip” (song), 29
typing classes, given by Commercial Press, 167. See also ty
ping schools, Chinese
typing schools, Chinese, 164, 182, 301, 303, 380n61 curricula in, 178–180, 197, 213
early entrepreneurial era of, 174–175
enrollment data from, 174, 227–228
establishment of first, 172
during Japanese occupation, 226–229
Latin-alphabet typing in, 179
in Manchukuo, 213
See also names of individual schools
typing schools, Japanese, 205 in occupied China, 213, 223
“typist fever
typists, Chinese, 164, 172 and allegiance in Manchukuo, 213–214
demands for “production” by, 299, 300
employment of in Communist government, 300
gender of, 172–174, 175–177, 227, 274
media representations of, 172–177, 173f
in occupied China, 229
patriotic images of, 284, 285f
and sensitivity to machine’s materiality, 180
Sheffield as first, 134
spread of in government and business, 175
tray bed reorganization experiments by, 235, 286–290, 304–311, 398n62
typists, Japanese, 207, 207f in occupied China, 213, 222–223
“U Can’t Touch This” (MC Hammer), 40
Underwood, John T., 342n30
Underwood Typewriter Company, 42 Arabic typewriter and, 344n50, 344n52
Chinese phonetic typewriter and, 185, 186
failure to encompass Chinese, 71, 159, 199
at Panama-Pacific exposition, 147
sale of Japanese kana typewriter, 203–204
Siamese typewriter and, 53, 54
visible typewriting and, 50, 342n30
UNESCO, Chinese typewriter used in, 306–308, 398n62
Union Typewriter Company, 50
United Front alliance, 254
United Nations, 279 Chinese typewriter used in, 306–308, 398n62
Universal History (Sheffield), 129
universal telegraphic language, 106, 108–109, 110, 353n59
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 138
University of the Philippines, 260
upper-case letters, frequency of in English, 47
user-driven change, 304, 311
user experience, 260, 270
users of information technology, 21 and hypothetical “average Chinese user,” 253, 262–263, 303
vernacularization of Chinese, 15, 19, 20–21 state-sponsored movement, 140, 142, 303
vernacular taxonomy. See natural-language arrangement
vertigo zoom, 389n10
Victory and Success Typing Academy, 174
Viguier, Septime Auguste, 110, 327, 354n70
visible typing, 50–51, 55, 342n30
Wade, Sir Thomas Francis, 128
Wagner, Franz X., 342n30
Wall Street Journal, 56
Walsh, Richard, 272, 278
Wan Guchan, 170
Wan Laiming, 170
Wang Chao, 185
Wang Guihua, 305–306, 398n58
Wang, H.L., 389n9
Wang Jialong, 298
Wang Jingchun, 327
Wang Kuoyee, 151
Wang Xinshun, 294
Wang Xizhi, 5, 94, 183, 256–258
Wang Yi, 216
Wang Yunwu, 250, 252, 296, 327
Wang Zhen, 82
Warlord period, 254, 371n55
War of Resistance Against Japan (1937–1945), 200, 220, 229, 230
Waseda University, 215
Washington Post, 155
Watt, Lori, 230
wax duplicating paper, 219
Wei Geng, 227
Wei Shuo (Lady Wei), 94–95
weights and measures, 140
Wen, King, 99
Wenhua Chinese Typewriter Company, 233
Western Civilization Union, 126, 128
White Terror, 254
Who’s Minding the Store? (film), 28
Williams, Samuel Wells, 66
Wilson, Mary Badger, 210–211
women, professional, 173, 176, 205, 366n29
women’s magazines, 141, 207
woodblock printing, 82, 96
word processing, 315
Wu Zhihui, 185
Wubi. See Five-Stroke retrieval system
Wuxi, 137
Wyckoff, Seamans, and Benedict, 55, 343n33
Xia Liang, 175
Xu Bing, 16–18, 22
Xu Shen, 77
Yamagata Girls’ Professional School
Yana Fumio, 204
Yanagiwara Sukeshige, 203, 204
Yang, Daqing, 221
Yang Yuying, 148, 154
Yasujiro Sakai, 327
Ye Shuyi, 176
Yen, James, 142, 327
Yesu. See Jesus
yin-yi-xing triad, 16–20, 22, 23
Yost (typewriter company), 46, 50, 60–61, 342n30
Yu Binqi, 215–220, 215f, 230, 232, 233, 327, 380n59, 384n93 and anti-Japanese politics, 218–220
decline of business, 223, 224–225
modifies Japanese typewriter, 217–218
and typewriting enterprise, 216–217, 380n60
See also typewriter models, Chinese: Yu Binqi typewriter
Yu Shuolin, 216, 384n93
Yuan Shikai, 371n55
Yu Binqi Chinese Typing Professional School, 216–217, 232, 380n60, 380n61
Yucai Chinese Typing School, 228
Yunnan University Mao Zedong-ism Artillery Regiment Foreign Language Division Propaganda Group
Yu-Style Chinese Typewriter Company, 233
Zhang Jiying, 283, 290–293, 293f, 294, 295, 297, 298, 300, 302, 327, 395n26
Zhang Xiangling, 188–189, 190, 373n74, 373n77
Zhang Yimou, 1
Zhang Yuanji, 157, 159, 166–167, 171, 250, 365n12
Zhanwang (periodical), 176
Zhao Yuanren (Yuen Ren Chao), 138, 186, 237, 273, 327
Zhongshan University, 260
Zhou Houkun, 123, 137–146, 146f, 148, 265, 267, 327, 359n49, 362n68, 365n5 attempt to mass-produce typewriter, 145
Commercial Press and, 159, 165–167, 364n104
debates Qi Xuan, 157–158
on duty of engineers, 138–139
mechanics of typewriter built by, 143
reception of typewriter built by, 143–145, 156–159
See also typewriter models, Chinese: Zhou Houkun typewriter
Zhou Yaru, 228
Zhu Yunming, 95
Zhuangzi, 76, 99
zhuyin fuhao (Chinese Phonetic Alphabet), 183–187, 279, 366n19. See also typewriter models, Chinese: Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter
Studies of the Weatherhead East Asian Institute
Columbia University
Selected Titles
(Complete list at: http://weai.columbia.edu/publications/studies-weai/)
The Chinese Typewriter: A History, by Thomas S. Mullaney. MIT Press, 2017.
Darwin, Dharma, and the Divine: Evolutionary Theory and Religion in Modern Japan, by G. Clinton Godart. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2017.
The Cultural Revolution on Trial: Mao and the Gang of Four, by Alexander C. Cook. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Dictators and Their Secret Police: Coercive Institutions and State Violence, by Sheena Chestnut Greitens. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Inheritance of Loss: China, Japan, and the Political Economy of Redemption after Empire, by Yukiko Koga. University of Chicago Press, 2016.
Homecomings: The Belated Return of Japan’s Lost Soldiers, by Yoshikuni Igarashi. Columbia University Press, 2016.
The Social Life of Inkstones: Artisans and Scholars in Early Qing China, by Dorothy Ko. University of Washington Press, 2016.
Samurai to Soldier: Remaking Military Service in Nineteenth-Century Japan, by D. Colin Jaundrill. Cornell University Press, 2016.
The Red Guard Generati
on and Political Activism in China, by Guobin Yang. Columbia University Press, 2016.
Accidental Activists: Victim Movements and Government Accountability in Japan and South Korea, by Celeste L. Arrington. Cornell University Press, 2016.
Negotiating Rural Land Ownership in Southwest China: State, Village, Family, by Yi Wu. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016.
Ming China and Vietnam: Negotiating Borders in Early Modern Asia, by Kathlene Baldanza. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Ethnic Conflict and Protest in Tibet and Xinjiang: Unrest in China’s West, coedited by Ben Hillman and Gray Tuttle. Columbia University Press, 2016.
One Hundred Million Philosophers: Science of Thought and the Culture of Democracy in Postwar Japan, by Adam Bronson. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016.
Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c. 1620–1720, by Xing Hang. Cambridge University Press, 2016.
Chinese Law in Imperial Eyes: Sovereignty, Justice, and Transcultural Politics, by Li Chen. Columbia University Press, 2015.
Imperial Genus: The Formation and Limits of the Human in Modern Korea and Japan, by Travis Workman. University of California Press, 2015.
Yasukuni Shrine: History, Memory, and Japan’s Unending Postwar, by Akiko Takenaka. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015.
The Age of Irreverence: A New History of Laughter in China, by Christopher Rea. University of California Press, 2015.
The Nature of Knowledge and the Knowledge of Nature in Early Modern Japan, by Federico Marcon. University of Chicago Press, 2015.
The Fascist Effect: Japan and Italy, 1915–1952, by Reto Hofmann. Cornell University Press, 2015.
The International Minimum: Creativity and Contradiction in Japan’s Global Engagement, 1933–1964, by Jessamyn R. Abel. University of Hawai‘i Press, 2015.
Empires of Coal: Fueling China’s Entry into the Modern World Order, 1860–1920, by Shellen Xiao Wu. Stanford University Press, 2015.
Casualties of History: Wounded Japanese Servicemen and the Second World War, by Lee K. Pennington. Cornell University Press, 2015.