proponents of, 13–14, 190
rejection of, 125, 138, 156, 171–172
advertising, Chinese, 153–154
A.E.G. Company, 343n37
aesthetics of divisible type, 96–103, 154
machinic, 151, 153
of Oriental “essences” in Occident, 92
politics of, 156
traditional Chinese orthographic, 93–95, 96, 130, 132, 151, 154
twentieth-century transformation of, 153
agonistic methodology, 30, 31–32
Ai Weiwei, 3
aikoku taipisuto (patriotic typists), 222
algorithmic reading, 76, 84, 85, 88, 91, 347n3 by Chinese researchers, 141, 361n63
Allard, J. Frank, 185
Allen, Joseph, 261
alphabet, Cyrillic, 60
alphabet, fetishization of, 67–68
alphabet, Greek, 2, 186
alphabet, Latin on stenotype machine, 317–318
used as paratextual technology in Chinese, 8–9, 255–256
used in Chinese telegraph code, 117, 118f, 120
alphabet, Phoenician, 2, 186
alphabetic order as analogy for character organization methods, 249
Chinese telegraph code and, 120
lack of in Chinese script, 3–9, 250
in Olympic Parade of Nations, 2, 4, 338n9
as stable, 250, 252, 253
alphacentric technologies, 9–10, 25, 46, 60, 352n48
alphasyllabaries (abugidas), 11
Analytic Universal Telegraphy (Escayrac de Lauture), 106, 108–109
Anderson, Leroy, 27–28, 29, 31
Anglo-Chinese College, 102, 147
Anglo-French expedition to China (1859), 106
animation, Chinese, 170
anti-reading. See algorithmic reading
Apple (computer company), 241
Arabic numerals adoption of, in Chinese, 140
on Shu-style typewriter, 366n19
Arabic script, and typewriter, 62–63, 344n52
Army Typist, The (Sakurada Tsunehisa), 222
Asahi shinbun (periodical), 222, 375n7
ASIA (magazine), 188, 278
“auto-telecommunication
Baidu, 320
baihua. See vernacularization of Chinese
Bangkok, 50
Baoshan Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 228–229
Barr, John H., 345n54
Beijing, 227, 228, 278, 284. See also Olympic Games
beiyongzi. See infrequently used characters
Bell, Alexander Graham, 55
Berry, Mary Elizabeth, 248
Beyerhaus, Auguste, 102, 149, 265, 325, 351n38, 351n39
Bi Sheng, 81, 169, 325
Bible, 87, 89, 135, 349n19, 351n38, 358n20
Blair, Ann, 247–248
blind typing, 179
Bloom, Alfred, 70, 72
Boas, Franz, 68
Bodde, Derk, 70, 72
bodies, human attuned to Communist rhetoric, 292, 304
Chinese typewriting and, 134, 172, 182, 371n55
in Chinese versus alphabetic typing, 178–180
natural-language experimentation and, 290, 300, 304
standardization and, 303
technolinguistic history and, 178
Bollywood, 29
Boltz, William, 70
Bombay Talkie (film), 28–29, 30
Book from the Sky (Xu Bing), 16–18, 22
Boulder Dam, as analogy for Chinese typewriter, 244, 245
Boxer Indemnity Scholarship Program, 137, 138
boycott of Japanese goods in China, 218, 219
Boyfriend (magazine), 215
Breteuil, 355n74
Brook, Timothy, 225
Brown, Alexander T., 47
Brumbaugh, Robert, 151
brushtalk, 209–210, 211
Bryans, William Remington, 148, 363n78
Bryson, Bill, 35, 40, 41, 43
Buck, Pearl S., 272, 278
Burgess, Anthony, 35
bushou. See radicals
Byrne, David, 319
Cable and Wireless, 201, 315
Cadmus, 186–187, 279
Cai Yuanpei, 185, 249
Caligraph (typewriter model), 50
calligraphy, Chinese, 16, 96, 281, 399n66 aesthetics of, 94–95, 99
orthographic principles of, 5, 94–95, 256
candidacy (in input), 240, 281
Cang Jie, 170
carbon-paper copying, 170, 180, 220
carriage advance mechanism, 59, 60, 63 reversed in Arabic and Hebrew typewriters, 60–61, 343n45, 344n52
Carter, Harry, 17, 18, 19
cartoons, mocking Chinese typewriters, 35–38, 42, 192–193
cenemic script, 11–12, 68
Chang, C.C., 157, 363n78
Chang, Chung-yuan, 279
Changsha, 142
character cylinder (typewriter part), 166, 167, 265, 363n79 in Japanese typewriter, 205
“character retrieval problem.” See under retrieval of Chinese characters
characters, Chinese abundance of, 77, 88, 264–265
in computing, 239–243
described verbally by components, 261
as elemental unit of script, 79–80
encounter with Western information technologies, 9–10, 44
fake, 16–18
“fundamental method” of organizing, 250–253, 256–258
as hindrance to technology, 184, 316
as “ideographic,” 66, 320
invention of, 170
as irresolvable individuals, 131, 132
“natural laws” of, 99
not made to fit the typewriter, 156
“puzzling” of, 75–121, 211
as semi-phoneticized “half-breed
simplification of, 15, 19, 20, 301
spatial archetypes of, 262
“spelled” from components, 80, 90, 94, 102, 104, 131, 149
structural balance of, 75
as ultimate Other of world scripts, 11–12, 64–65, 317
used for transnational communication, 209–210
Western denigration of, 38, 43–44, 65–74, 81
See also abolition of Chinese characters; radicals
character selector (typewriter part), 143, 197, 199
character slugs (typewriter part), 30, 169, 226 lacking for infrequent characters, 284
not fixed, 163, 295
on Shu-style typewriter, 163–164, 167, 364n1
Yu Binqi and, 219
See also infrequently used characters
Chartier, Roger, 178
Chen Changgeng, 230, 231, 233
Chen Duxiu, 12, 15, 252
Chen Guangyao, 296, 298
Chen Heqin, 141, 142, 361n58
Chen Lifu, 253–258, 325, 390n23, 390n25 invention of Five-Stroke system, 254
as “righting the wrongs of the ancients
Chen Pengnian, 77
Chen Songling, 175
Chiang Kai-shek, 254, 278, 371n55
Chicago Daily Tribune, 244, 245
China Standard Typewriter Manufacturing Company, 226
Chinatown, Los Angeles, 161
Chinatown, San Francisco, 35
China Typewriter Company, 233
“Chinese alphabet” (Western misconception), 183–187
Chinese-American Typing Institute, 174
Chinese Civil War, 278
Chinese Exclusion Act, 362n76
Chinese Inventors Association, 220
Chinese National Physical Education Federation, 215
Chinese Phonetic Alphabet. See zhuyin fuhao
Chinese Railway Institute, 165
Chinese Students’ Monthly, 125
Chinese Telegraph Administration
Chinese Times, 126
“Chinese Typewriter” (dance), 40
Chinese Typewriter, The (film), 38–39
chinmun. See “truth script”
Chu Yin Tzu-mu Keyboard. S
ee typewriter models, Chinese: Remington Chinese Phonetic Typewriter
Civil Service Examination, Chinese, 21
Civil War, U.S., 127
CJK (Chinese-Japanese-Korean information technology), 200, 210 in typewriter market, 209
Clarke, Adele, 307
cleaning services for typewriters, 225
cliché, 291, 295
cloud, the, 320
Coble, Parks, 225
“code consciousness
codex, 178
Cold War, 196
colonialism, Western, 9, 12, 107
combinatorialism, 79, 121, 159, 316 in Chinese-language printing, 89–103, 106
criticism of in typewriting, 157–158, 264
definition of, 80
in MingKwai, 264–265, 266f
in Qi Xuan typewriter, 149–154, 150f
in telegraphy, 103–104
See also divisible type
Commercial Press, 142, 250, 252, 274, 296, 364n104 competition to, 212, 217, 223, 224, 229
and formation of typewriter industry, 170–172, 175, 182
implements lianchuanzi, 292
interest in Zhou Houkun typewriter, 157, 159, 165
Japanese bombing of, 212–213
mass-produces first Chinese typewriter, 161, 164, 166–169, 168f, 169f
presents Chinese typewriter to West, 188–190
Commercial Press Characters in the Chinese Spoken Language (Chen Heqin), 141
common usage, 17–18, 121, 316 approach to typewriting, 155–156
in Chinese-language printing, 81–88, 89, 106, 128
in Chinese telegraph code, 110
criticism of in typewriting, 158, 264, 274
definition of, 79
“discovery” of by Westerners, 85
Japanese kanji and, 204–205
in MingKwai, 264, 267, 268
and number of characters used in texts, 84–86
politics of exclusion in, 87, 88, 100, 103, 198
in Qi Xuan typewriter, 148–149
in Sheffield typewriter, 132–134
in Shu-style typewriter, 163
vibrancy in early twentieth-century China, 140–142
in Zhou Houkun typewriter, 137, 140, 143, 159, 166
See also descriptive imperative; exclusion of characters; prescriptive imperative
Communist Party, Chinese (CCP) alliance with Nationalists, 254
attitude toward typing experiments, 300–301
in Chinese Civil War, 278–279
language reform and, 12, 142, 301
Zhang Jiying and, 292
Communist revolution (1949), 8, 232, 278–279 key political changes caused by, 299–300
competitions, typing Manchuria-Wide Typing Competition, 224
North China Military Region Typing Competition, 298
“complete keyboard” typewriter. See double-keyboard typewriter
Computer History Museum, 237
computing Chinese, 9, 14, 19, 24, 238–243, 288, 315–321
history of Western, 237–238
Western misconceptions of Chinese, 321
conceptual algorithms, 42–44
Conference on Unification of Pronunciation, 185
Confucianism, 12, 15, 202
Confucius, 86
Connected Language Tray Bed. See lianchuanzi
continuity, 18, 21–23
correspondence (of keystrokes to inscription), 239, 245, 317
Costas, Bob, 3–4, 6, 9
Cousin, Abel Joseph Constant, 53–54
Creel, Herrlee Glessner, 68–69, 70
criteria (in computing), 239, 240, 281
C.Y. Chao Typewriting Maintenance Department, 225
Daily Hiragana News, 202
Daily Picayune-New Orleans, 136
Damrong Rajanubhab, Prince, 45
dao (of organizing Chinese characters), 252, 253, 258
Daodejing, 89, 92
Daoism, 15, 89, 202
dayinben. See type-and-mimeograph editions
daziji. See typewriter, Chinese
daziyuan. See typists, Chinese
decentralization of tray bed changes, 288, 290, 300, 304, 308, 311, 397n55
deconstruction, 31–32
De la transmission télégraphique des caractères chinois (Escayrac de Lauture), 103–104
Denshin jigÅ. See kana: in Japanese telegraph code
Densmore Typewriter Company, 46, 50
descriptive imperative, 87, 134
Detroit, 137
“dialects” of Chinese, 13, 21, 40, 187, 243, 356n75 and “national language
in popular culture, 39
dictionaries, Chinese, 15, 77, 82–83, 95, 270 foundational character dictionaries, 142, 204
See also Kangxi Dictionary
Ding, Cook, 99
directionality of script, in Hebrew and Arabic, 60
discipline, physical and mental, 178
divisible type, 80, 90–103, 106, 131, 351n37, 351n38 aesthetic politics of, 96–103, 154, 198
compared to full-body type, 97–100, 98f, 101f
number of radicals needed in, 158
Qi Xuan’s typewriter and, 147, 149, 151
telegraphy and, 103
widespread adoption of, 102
Dodge, Elbert S., 343n45
Dong Jing’an, 143
Du Dingyou, 249, 250, 252, 260–263, 270, 325, 390n29
Du Ponceau, Peter S., 66–67
Dyer, Samuel, 102, 325, 349n20
East Asia Japanese-Chinese Typewriting Professional Supplementary School, 228, 229, 386n109
Eastern Extension A&C Telegraph Company, 110
East India Company, 84
edicts, imperial (zhaoshu), 213
Egyptian script, 66
eight fundamental strokes, 5, 5f, 94–95, 256, 257f
electronic music, 318–319
embedded messages, 217
embodied practice. See bodies, human
“enciphered” transmissions (telegraphy), 112–113, 115 Chinese considered to be, 114, 355n74
during Nationalist military campaign, 254
engineers duty of according to Zhou Houkun, 138–139
role in Chinese technolinguistic modernity, 10, 14
Escayrac de Lauture, Pierre Henri Stanislas d’, 104–105, 110, 114, 325 Chinese telegraph code proposal, 103–104, 105f, 109
and universal telegraphic language, 106, 108–109, 110, 112, 353n59
Ethnic Classification project (minzu shibie), 283
“evocative objects
evolutionism in character retrieval debate, 252
questioning of, 68–70
in Western critiques of Chinese, 43–44, 65–67, 71, 72
“examination Chinese
exclusion of characters in Sheffield’s typewriter, 132, 133, 134–135
in typewriters in general, 155–156
in Zhou Houkun’s typewriter, 166
“exotic type
factories, typewriter, 59, 61, 63, 167–169, 168f, 169f
false universalisms, 9, 10–12, 64, 317 in Olympic Games, 4
Fan Jiling, 232, 233
Far East Trade Monthly, 224
feminization of clerical workforce in Japan, 205
worldwide, 172–173, 175, 177, 274, 392n47
Fengtian Japanese-Chinese Typing Institute, 229
Fengtian Typing Professional School, 213
finding rod. See character selector
Five-Stroke (Wubi) retrieval system, 254–258, 259f, 390n25. See also Chen Lifu
Flox, O.D., 126–128
Foguoji (A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms), 89, 102, 351n39
Fong Sec, 188
fonts, Chinese, 89, 90, 92–93, 96, 102, 348n16, 351n39 radical new fonts, 153–154
Song-style font (songti), 18
See also divisible type; movable type
Forbidden City, 36, 147
f
oundational character sets, 141–142, 155, 166, 361n63
Four Treasuries, The (Siku quanshu), 82
France, rationality of, 90, 93
frequency analysis of alphabetic scripts, 60
frequency analysis of Chinese characters by Chinese researchers, 140–142, 361n58
in computer input, 19, 240
in corpus of Chinese texts, 84, 89
by Gamble, 75–76
in natural-language arrangement, 305
by Sheffield, 132
in Shu-style typewriter tray bed, 163
for typesetting, 82
Fujimura, Joan, 307
Fukuzawa Yukichi, 204
Fuller, Matthew, 239
gada gada gada (sound of Chinese typewriter), 30, 31
Gamble, William, 75–76, 134, 141, 325, 349n19 analysis of Chinese common usage, 75–76, 79, 86, 87, 89, 127, 361n58
criticism of Chinese movable type, 81, 83, 347n4
Gao Mengdan, 249, 250
Gattopardo, Il (Lampedusa), 22
Gellner, Ernest, 202
Gestalt pattern-finding, 262, 271
Gilbert, Paul T., 183
Ginsberg, Allen, 71
Girouard, Gerry, 319
Glidden, Carlos, 46
Goody, Jack, 69
Google, 241, 281, 319
Grant, John Cameron, 184–185
“graphology” (“metalanguage”), in Chinese, 261
Great Asia Pictorial (periodical), 176
Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 224
Great Leap Forward, 79, 300
Great Learning, The (Daxue), 89
Great Northern Telegraph Company, 109, 201
Great Qing Legal Code, 84–85, 89
Greece, Western reverence for, 2
“Greek Miracle,” 2, 69, 186
Guangde Chinese Typewriting Supplementary School, 227, 228
Guomindang, 195, 253 Central Executive Committee, 253, 255