THE GREENWOOD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
CLOTHING THROUGH
AMERICAN HISTORY
1900 TO THE PRESENT
THE GREENWOOD ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
CLOTHING THROUGH
AMERICAN HISTORY
1900 TO THE PRESENT
VOLUME 1
1900–1949
Amy T. Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan,
Ann T. Kellogg, and Lynn W. Payne
Amy T. Peterson, General Editor
GREENWOOD PRESS
Westport, Connecticut • London
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
The Greenwood encyclopedia of clothing through American history 1900 to the present /
Amy T. Peterson, general editor [v. 1], Ann T. Kellogg, general editor [v. 2].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978 0 313 35855 5 ((set) : alk. paper)—ISBN 978 0 313 33395 8 ((vol. 1) : alk.
paper)—ISBN 978 0 313 33417 7 ((vol. 2) : alk. paper)
1. Clothing and dress—United States—History—20th century. I. Peterson, Amy T.
II. Kellogg, Ann T., 1968
GT615.G74 2008
391.0097309004—dc22
2008024624
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data is available.
Copyright
C 2008 by Amy T. Peterson, Valerie Hewitt, Heather Vaughan,
Ann T. Kellogg, and Lynn W. Payne
All rights reserved. No portion of this book may be
reproduced, by any process or technique, without the
express written consent of the publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2008024624
ISBN: 978 0 313 35855 5 (set)
978 0 313 33395 8 (vol. 1)
978 0 313 33417 7 (vol. 2)
First published in 2008
Greenwood Press, 88 Post Road West, Westport, CT 06881
An imprint of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
www.greenwood.com
Printed in the United States of America
The paper used in this book complies with the
Permanent Paper Standard issued by the National
Information Standards Organization (Z39.48 1984).
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Contents
Preface
ix
Chronology of World and Fashion Events, 1900 1949
xiii
Part I: The Social Significance of Dress, 1900–1949
1
Chapter 1: The United States in 1900 1949: An Overview
3
Politics in America
5
Ethnicity in America
6
Art and Entertainment
7
Daily Life
9
The Changing Role of Women
10
Sexuality and Morality
11
Growing Up in America
12
Fashion
14
Chapter 2: Political and Cultural Events
19
The 1900s
21
The 1910s
28
The 1920s
33
The 1930s
39
The 1940s
44
Chapter 3: Art and Entertainment
53
The 1900s
55
The 1910s
61
The 1920s
66
The 1930s
The 1940s
78
v
vi
Contents
Chapter 4: Daily Life
87
The 1900s
89
The 1910s
95
The 1920s
100
The 1930s
105
The 1940s
107
Chapter 5: The Individual and Family
115
The 1900s
117
The 1910s
126
The 1920s
130
The 1930s
138
The 1940s
140
Part II: Fashion and the Fashion Industry, 1900–1949
147
Chapter 6: The Business of Fashion
149
Haute Couture
150
Ready-to-Wear
155
Retail Operations
158
Fashion Communication
161
Fashion Technology
165
Chapter 7: Women’s Fashions
169
1900 1908, The Edwardian or La Belle Epoque Era
171
1909 1914, Empire Revival
180
1914 1919, World War I
188
1920s, The Jazz Age
197
1930s, The Great Depression
211
1940 1946, World War II
223
1947 1949, The New Look
237
Chapter 8: Men’s Fashions
247
The 1900s
248
The 1910s
256
1920s, The Jazz Age
263
1930s, The Great Depression
272
1940s, World War II
280
Chapter 9: Children’s Fashions
289
The 1900s
291
The 1910s
297
1920s, The Jazz Age
307
1930s, The Great Depression
316
1940s, World War II
326
Contents
vii
Glossary, 1900 1949
341
Resource Guide, 1900 1949
347
Print and Online Publications
347
Films and Video Media
352
Museums, Organizations, Special Collections, and Useful Websites
354
Cumulative Index
361
About the Contributors
391
Unnumbered photo essay appears following page 204.
Preface
Fashion is influenced by society, and, in turn, fashion influences society.
Changes in appearance, however subtle or minimal, reflect changes in so-
ciety. As society changes and evolves, so does fashion. Fashion is not the
exclusive purview of the social elite, nor can it be summarily dismissed as
mere vanity. It is much more complex than just wearing the latest styles.
We use fashion to express who we are and what we think and to project
an image, bolster our confidence, and attract partners. Fashion crosses all
strata of society and is tightly interwoven into each individual’s identity.
Undeniably, fashion ‘‘… is an essential part of the human experience’’
(Damhorst, Miller, and Michelman 1999, p. xi).
Clothing through American History 1900 to the Present examines th
e
relationship between social, cultural, and political developments and fash-
ion in the United States. Volume One discusses the culture, clothing, and
fashion in America from 1900 to 1949, and Volume Two discusses the
culture, clothing, and fashion in America from 1950 to the present, about
midway through 2008 at this writing. Both volumes in this set are struc-
tured to provide two levels of information to the reader: first, what people
wore and, second, and perhaps more important, why they wore it. In
addition to chapters on fashion trends, this work contains chapters specif-
ically dedicated to examining the impact that politics, culture, arts and
entertainment, daily life, and family structures have on fashion and how
fashion can serve as an impetus for change in society. This set also exam-
ines the history of the fashion industry and the communication of fashion
information in print, in movies and television, and across the Internet.
Research for this work was conducted through numerous primary and
secondary resources on fashion and history, which can be found in the
chapter references and in the Resource Guide at the end of each volume,
particularly in the ‘‘Print and Online Publications’’ section. Not all
ix
x
Preface
historical or current events, art movements, or socio-cultural theories were
considered in the development of this book; the scope was limited only to
those areas the authors believed directly impacted fashion trends. Nor is
this book a comprehensive guide to subculture or alternative fashion
movements; the focus is on the mainstream, common fashion trends that
were adopted by the majority of Americans.
To guide the reader, a chronology of key historical events and fashion
trends is provided at the beginning of each volume. Illustrations of signif-
icant fashion trends for both men and women are included to supplement
the descriptive text, as does a glossary of fashion terms, which will assist
the reader with terminology. An extensive resource guide of numerous
articles and books, videos, and films that demonstrate fashion of certain
eras, and a substantial listing of authoritative websites, including those for
museums and special collections, rounds out the Selected Resources
provided.
T H E T W E N T I E T H A N D T W EN T Y-FIRST
C E N T U R I E S
The birth of the twentieth century marked the beginning of the new,
modern era that was more open, expressive, and progressive than the re-
served and sober nineteenth-century Victorian era. Changes in society
were rapidly taking place. The telephone, electricity, automobiles, and
cameras, at first technological marvels, became commonplace items. Over
the course of the century, mass-produced ready-to-wear clothing replaced
custom-made hand-tailored clothing, allowing new fashions to be rapidly
reproduced and distributed in large volumes simultaneously across the
entire country. First store catalogs, and then the Internet, made fashions
immediately accessible to individuals in even the most remote parts of the
country. After World War II, the economic prosperity experienced by most
of the United States resulted in a population shift from urban to suburban,
and fashion followed suit with the development of the shopping mall.
The last half of the twentieth century was marked by space explora-
tion, activism, and civil unrest. The tumult of the 1960s witnessed the
birth of both space exploration and the Civil Rights Movement. Although
the ultra-hip donned vinyl dresses with metallic details, African Ameri-
cans explored their origins and adopted traditional forms of African dress
to express their identity. Middle-class youth became involved in numerous
social protest movements against the establishment and, dubbed ‘ hippies,’’
chose to differentiate themselves from their parents by rejecting Jackie-O
Preface
xi
dress with high heels and Brooks Brother suits and adopting ethnic dress,
long hair, and beards.
As the final decades of the twentieth century approached, the social
consciousness of the 1960s and 1970s was replaced by conspicuous con-
sumption in the 1980s. Instead of reflecting allegiance with a social move-
ment, fashion now reflected one’s material worth and station in society.
Status symbols were prominently displayed on all apparel, as well as on
many household goods. Bigger was better, and indulging in luxury was
the message broadcast to all of society.
In response to the excesses of the 1980s, the 1990s appeared almost
generic. Most forms of self-expressions in fashions were gone: not so
many designer labels nor as much conspicuous consumption. Khakis and
white t-shirts became the norm and were considered acceptable dress for
almost every occasion. Even the workplace began to dress down, imple-
menting ‘ business casual’ and ‘ casual Fridays,’’ instead of the standard
suit and tie and dressy outfits for women. Whereas the 1980s screamed
self-indulgence, the 1990s quietly and calmly, in an understated manner,
closed out the century.
From the Chambre Syndicale de la Couture Parisienne to mass mer-
chandisers, from Nordstrom to Overstock.com, the rapid (and now
global) dissemination of fashion information is a potent agent for change
in society. Fashion and society are inextricably intertwined, each influenc-
ing the other. This book attempts to identify those connections and not
just document the fashions of this time but also give context to them. As
we progress through the twenty-first century, we will have to wait until
enough time has passed to look back and read how fashion influenced
twenty-first-century society and how the events of this new century are
registered in the fashions we all wear.
We thank our friends, family, and colleagues for their support and
encouragement throughout the course of this project. We are grateful for
the assistance and reassurance that you each provided.
Amy T. Peterson
Ann T. Kellogg
R E F E R E N C E
Damhorst, M. L., Miller, K. A., and Michelman, S. O. (1999) The Meanings of
Dress. New York: Fairchild Publications.
Chronology of World and
Fashion Events, 1900–1949
1900
The World’s Fair (Exposition Universelle) is held in Paris.
1901
President William McKinley is assassinated on September 6, and
Theodore Roosevelt assumes the presidency.
1901
Marconi sends the first wireless message across the Atlantic Ocean
on December 12.
1901
Queen Victoria of England dies on January 22, ending the
Victorian Era.
1903
The Wright Brothers make a successful airplane flight at Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17.
1906
Major earthquake destroys much of San Francisco, California, on
April 18.
1906
Paul Poiret introduced the empire waistline into women’s fashions.
1907
Pablo Pic
asso paints Les Demoiselles d’Avignon.
1907
Mariano Fortuny creates the ‘‘Delphos’’ gown.
1908
Henry Ford produces the first Model T car on September 27.
1909
William E. B. DuBois leads a group that founds the National
Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) on
February 12.
1909
William Howard Taft becomes president on March 4.
1912
The ocean liner Titanic sinks on its maiden voyage on April 14.
1913
Woodrow Wilson becomes president of the United States on
March 4.
1913
Jantzen introduced the first rib-knit swimsuit, which had the elas-
ticity to allow easy swimming.
1914
The Panama Canal opens under lease to the United States on
August 15.
xiii
xiv
Chronology of World and Fashion Events, 1900–1949
1917
The United States joins World War I on the side of the Allies on
April 6.
1917
The Immigration Act excludes Asian laborers from entering the
United States.
1920
First General Assembly of the League of Nations convenes on
January 10.
1920
The Nineteenth Amendment gives American women the right to
vote.
1920
Prohibition begins in the United States with the enactment of the
Eighteenth Amendment.
1920
Ethelda M. Bleibtrey, an American, wins three medals for women’s
swimming at the Olympics in Antwerp.
1921
Hitler is elected president of National Socialist German Workers’
Party on July 29.
1921
Mussolini declares himself leader of National Fascist Party in Italy
on November 7.
1921
Madeleine Vionnet makes her United States debut.
1921
Chanel’s ‘‘No. 5’’ perfume is introduced.
1921
Wiener Werstatte opens branch in New York.
1922
James Joyce releases his epic, Ulysses.
1922
The first woman, Rebecca Fenton, is appointed to the U.S. Senate
on October 3.
1922
Discovery of Tutankhamen’s tomb in the Valley of the Kings,
Egypt.
1922
Victor Margueritte’s novel La Garconne is released and helps define
the flapper era.
1922
Emily Post publishes her first book, Etiquette.
1923
Madeleine Vionnet invents the bias cut.
1923
Sigmund Freud publishes Das Ich und das Es (The Ego and the Id).
1923
The first birth control clinic opens in New York.