With only a small amount of explosives and some dubious detonators and cable left, Lawrence next tried to mine the railway and blow up a train. By now it was raining hard, soaking the equipment, but Lawrence persevered and placed a mine under a small bridge on the line between Amman and Dara on 10 November. However, the deficiencies in cable meant that the operator had to sit virtually totally exposed, behind a very small bush, just 55m (60yds) from the rails. Lawrence himself took the job, and watching with growing excitement as a double-engined and ‘enormously long’ train packed with troops pulled into view.419 However, either the cable or the detonators failed, and no amount of effort on Lawrence’s part could get the mine to blow. Instead he was forced to sit, helpless, in full view of the slowly passing troops. After a nerve-wracking few minutes, the train passed and Lawrence was able to scramble back to his waiting men. The following day a second attempt was made, after effecting repairs on the mine. This time it worked and a train was derailed, although, being so close to the explosion, Lawrence was himself stunned and injured by the blast. With some success salvaged from the previous failures, Lawrence and his party returned to Azraq.
Then followed one of the more controversial episodes in Lawrence’s life: his reconnaissance to Dara. According to his later accounts he approached the town with a few Arab guides, and on 20 November entered with just one companion. He then claims to have been picked up by an Ottoman patrol and taken before the governor of the town. That night, he was badly beaten and sexually abused before managing to escape the following morning. This event has been hotly debated, based as it is only on Lawrence’s own testimony, which exist in differing forms, all of which were written several years after the event. Either way, he arrived back at Aqaba on 26 November, an arduous journey to have made so quickly with the injuries he had suffered. On 11 December he was in Jerusalem for the grand entry by Allenby, standing in the crowd behind the general outside the Citadel looking scruffy in a borrowed uniform and grinning broadly.420
The Arabs took no more part in the 1917 campaign, but in January 1918 they advanced into the Dead Sea region. After defeating an Ottoman force in open battle at El Tafila, they swept down to the port of El Mezra where they captured part of the grain fleet that ran Ottoman supplies across the Dead Sea. Over the spring and summer the Arabs aggressively attacked the Ottoman rail network in the Trans-Jordan, drawing off troops and resources from the forces facing the British. During the final offensive of September and October 1918, they swept up the right flank of the British forces, rolling the shattered Ottoman forces out of northern Palestine and then Syria.
This final offensive began on 19 September 1918. The plan was superficially similar to that for the 3rd Battle of Gaza, albeit with the flanks reversed. This time, the cavalry smashed through the western end of the Ottoman line before turning north-east, and there were no water issues to hamper their subsequent advance. The cavalry divisions were let loose across the northern Palestine plains. Along with the aeroplanes of the Royal Air Force, who had been gaining and cementing their superiority in the air through the year, they rapidly destroyed the Ottoman command-and-control network and much of their logistics system too. Within days the 7th and 8th (OT) Armies were in full flight, and the columns of retreating men were mercilessly harried by cavalry and aircraft; tens of thousands surrendered as their forces disintegrated. On 21 September, the headquarters of the 8th (OT) Army was absorbed into von Sander’s Yildirim headquarters, and that army effectively ceased to exist as an organised fighting formation. Damascus fell on 1 October. True to his 1917 actions, Allenby then called a pause, despite political pressure from London, to allow his men to rest and his infantry and logistics to catch up. On 8 October Beirut was also captured, giving the British an important port close to their front lines. The offensive was renewed only when he was ready, and by mid October Homs and Tripoli had fallen and the advance on Aleppo, was underway. After the long ride of 355km (220 miles), Aleppo fell on 19 October, and von Sanders pulled his remaining forces back to Adana, across the border from Syria into Anatolia. Here his greatly depleted force was joined by the remains of the 7th (OT) Army under Mustapha Kemal, and they prepared to defend the Turkish homeland.
It never came to that. In the Balkans, Major General George Milne’s British Salonika Force had broken out and had a clear path to advance on Constantinople, and now the southern armies were also defeated. Although, to the east, the Ottoman forces in the Caucasus were undefeated and had even been successful in their 1918 campaign, the empire was drained of reserves. The gathering and destruction of the Yildirim had left it an empty shell, and it was now unable to effectively defend itself. On 5 October the Ottoman government had decided to explore the possibility of an armistice, approaching the Spanish to ask the Americans (who had never declared war on the Ottoman Empire) to broker a deal. The effort failed, and instead Major General Charles Townsend, who had been captured with most of his army at Kut in Mesopotamia in 1916, was sent to speak directly to the British. After some negotiation, an armistice was signed on the deck of HMS Agamemmon on 30 October 1918.
The war was over, although considerable fighting remained, both actual and political. A revolt erupted in Egypt in 1919, diverting British troops who were preparing to go home for demobilisation, and the military was also still required for ‘policing’ across Syria, Palestine and the Trans-Jordan while civil authorities could be established. This took time as the European powers fought for their own claims and sought ways to avoid their commitments to each other and the Arabs. For the next few years the map of the Middle East was redrawn, inadvertently setting the stage for a further century of conflict across the region.
Notes
419 Lawrence Seven Pillars Chapter 77
420 Lawrence Seven Pillars Chapters 73–81; Barr Desert pp. 183–200; Asher pp. 273–98
GLOSSARY
AFC: Australian Flying Corps
AIF: Australian Imperial Forces
ALH: Australian Light Horse
ANZAC: Australian and New Zealand Army Corps, also nickname for a soldier from those countries
A&NZ: Australian and New Zealand. Title of a mounted division in Egypt
AOC: Army Ordnance Corps
ASC: Army Service Corps
Bimbashi: Egyptian Army Major
CCS: Casualty Clearing Station
CTC: Camel Transport Corps (part of Egyptian Labour Corps)
Corvée: Egyptian system for providing forced labour for government projects
DMC: Desert Mounted Corps
EEF: Egyptian Expeditionary Force
ELC: Egyptian Labour Corps
Emir: Arab Governor
ESR: Egyptian State Railway
FA: Flieger Abteilung. German Air Force squadron
General Service: Usually referred to items of equipment that were of the standard Army pattern (i.e. GS wagons)
HAC: Honourable Artillery Company (a Territorial artillery unit)
HLI: Highland Light Infantry
ICC: Imperial Camel Corps
Khamsin/khamaseen: The hot wind from central Africa that blows up through Egypt between March and May
Khedive: Viceroy of Egypt
KOSB: King’s Own Scottish Borderers
Mehmetçik: Literally ‘Mehmet’, nickname by Ottoman troops for themselves, equivalent of the British ‘Tommy’ or Australian ‘Digger’
Monitor: Shallow draft ship used as a floating gun platform
Nahr: River
NCO: Non-Commissioned Officer
NZMR: New Zealand Mounted Rifles
OT: Ottoman Turkish
Pasha: Senior Ottoman military or government official
QOWH: Queen’s Own Worcestershire Hussars (Yeomanry)
RA: Royal Artillery
RAMC: Royal Army Medical Corps
RE: Royal Engineers
RFA: Royal Field Artillery
RFC: Royal Flying Corps
RGH: Royal Gloucestershire Hussars
RHA: Royal
Horse Artillery
RN: Royal Navy
RNAS: Royal Naval Air Service
RNVR: Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve
RSF: Royal Scots Fusiliers
RWF: Royal Welch Fusiliers
Tarboosh: A fez-like hat
WFF: Western Frontier Force
Yildirim: Thunderbolt
APPENDIX A:
ORDERS OF BATTLE,
1ST BATTLE OF GAZA
British and Imperial Forces
General Officer Commanding:
Major General (temp. Lieutenant General) Sir Charles Dobell KCB CMG DSO
Force Troops
Imperial Camel Corps Brigade
Major (temp. Brigadier General) C.L. Smith VC MC
1st, 2nd and 3rd Battalions
Hong Kong and Singapore Camel Battery
Brigade Signal Section
Brigade Field Troop RE
Brigade Machine Gun Company
1/1st Scottish Horse Field Ambulance
229th Infantry Brigade (from 74th Division)
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) R. Hoare
16th Devonshire Regiment, 12th Somerset Light Infantry, 14th Royal Highlanders, 12th Royal Scots Fusiliers
4th Machine Gun Company
11th and 12th Light Armoured Car Batteries
4th Light Car Patrol
10th Heavy Battery RGA
91st Heavy Battery RGA
52nd (Lowland) Division
General Officer Commanding:
Colonel (temp. Major General) W.E.B. Smith CB CMG
155th Infantry Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) J.B. Pollok-M’Call CMG
1/4th and 1/5th Royal Scots Fusiliers, 1/4th and 1/5th King’s Own Scottish Borderers
155th Brigade Machine Gun Company
156th Infantry Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) A.H. Leggett DSO
1/4th and 1/7th Royal Scots, 1/7th and 1/8th Scottish Rifles
156th Brigade Machine Gun Company
157th Infantry Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) C.D.H. Moore DSO
1/5th, 1/6th and 1/7th Highland Light Infantry, 1/5th Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders
157th Brigade Machine Gun Company
Divisional Troops
Mounted Troops: HQ and ‘C’ Squadron, Royal Glasgow Yeomanry
Artillery: 261st, 262nd and 263rd Brigades, RFA
52nd Divisional Ammunition Column
Engineers: 2/1st, 2/2nd and 1/2nd Lowland Field Companies, RE
Signal Service: 52nd Divisional Signal Company
ASC: 52nd Divisional Train
Medical Units: 1/1st, 1/2nd, 1/3rd Lowland Field Ambulances
54th (East Anglian) Division
General Officer Commanding: Colonel (temp. Major General) S.W. Hare CB
161st Infantry Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) W. Marriott-Dodington
1/4th, 1/5th, 1/6th and 1/7th Essex Regiment
161st Brigade Machine Gun Company
162nd Infantry Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) A. Mudge
1/5th Bedford Regiment,1/4th Northampton Regiment, 1/10th and 1/11th London Regiment
162nd Brigade Machine Gun Company
163rd Infantry Brigade
Major (Hon. Colonel, Temp. Brigadier General) T. Ward
1/4th and 1/5th Norfolk Regiment, 1/5th Suffolk Regiment, 1/8th Hampshire Regiment
163rd Brigade Machine Gun Company
Divisional Troops
Mounted Troops: 1 Sqn 1/1st Hertfordshire Yeomanry (with HQ and Machine-Gun Section)
Artillery: 270th, 271st and 272nd Brigades, RFA
54th Divisional Ammunition Column
Engineers: 2/1st E. Anglian Field Company, RE
1/2nd E. Anglian Field Company, RE
1/1st Kent Field Company, RE
Signal Service: 54th Divisional Signal Company
ASC: 54th Divisional Train
Medical: 2/1st, 1/2nd and1/3rd E. Anglian Field Ambulances
Desert Column
General Officer Commanding:
Major General (temp. Lieutenant General) Sir P.W. Chetwode Bt CB DSO
Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division
General Officer Commanding:
Major General Sir H.G. Chauvel KCMG CB
1st Australian Light Horse Brigade detached
2nd Australian Light Horse Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) G. de L Ryrie CMG
5th, 6th and 7th Regiments Australian Light Horse
2nd Australian Light Horse Signal Troop
2nd Australian Machine Gun Squadron
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) E.W.C. Chaytor CB
Auckland, Canterbury and Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiments
New Zealand Mounted Rifles Signal Troop
New Zealand Machine Gun Squadron
22nd Mounted Brigade
Colonel (temp, Brigadier General) F.A.B. Fryer
1/1st Lincolnshire Yeomanry, 1/1st Staffordshire Yeomanry,1/1st East Riding Yeomanry
22nd Mounted Brigade Signal Troop
18th Machine Gun Squadron
Divisional Troops
Artillery: Leicester, Somerset, Inverness and Ayr Batteries RHA
Engineers: 1st Australian Field Squadron
Signal Service: 1st A. and NZ Signal Squadron
ASC: HQ Light Horse Divisional ASC
Mounted Divisional Ammunition Column
26 and 27 Australian Units of Supply
Medical: 1st and 2nd LH Field Ambulances
NZ Mounted Brigade Ambulance
1/1st North Midland Mounted Brigade Field Ambulance
Imperial Mounted Division
General Officer Commanding:
Colonel (temp. Major General) H.W. Hodgson CVO CB
3rd Australian Light Horse Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) J.R. Royston CMG DSO
8th, 9th and 10th Regiments Australian Light Horse
3rd Australian Light Horse Signal Troop
3rd Australian Machine Gun Squadron
4th Australian Light Horse Brigade detached
5th Mounted Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) E.A. Wiggin DSO
1/1st Warwick Yeomanry, 1/1st Gloucester Yeomanry, 1/1st Worcester Yeomanry
5th Mounted Brigade Signal Troop
16th Machine Gun Squadron
6th Mounted Brigade
Lieutenant Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) T.M.S. Pitt
1/1st Buckinghamshire Yeomanry, 1/1st Berkshire Yeomanry, 1/1st Dorsetshire Yeomanry
6th Mounted Brigade Signal Troop
17th Machine Gun Squadron
Divisional Troops
Artillery: 1/1st Berkshire and 1/1st Nottinghamshire Batteries RHA
‘A’ and ‘B’ Batteries HAC
Mounted Divisional Ammunition Column
Engineers: Imperial Mounted Division Field Squadron
Medical: 3rd and 4th LH Field Ambulances
1/1st South Midland Mounted and 1/2nd South Midland Mounted Brigades Field Ambulances
53rd (Welsh) Division
General Officer Commanding: Major General A.E. Dallas, CB CMG
158th Infantry Brigade
Major (temp. Brigadier General) S.F. Mott
1/5th, 1/6th and 1/7th Royal Welsh Fusiliers, 1/1st Herefordshire Regiment
158th Brigade Machine Gun Company
159th Infantry Brigade Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) J.H. du B. Travers CB
1/4th and 1/7th Cheshire Regiment, 1/4th and 1/5th Welsh Regiment
159th Brigade Machine Gun Company
160th Infantry Brigade
Colonel (temp. Brigadier General) W.J.C. Butler
&
nbsp; 1/4th Royal Sussex Regiment, 2/4th Royal West Surrey Regiment, 2/10th Middlesex Regiment
160th Brigade Machine Gun Company
Divisional Troops
Mounted Troops: 1 Sqn 1/1st Hertfordshire Yeomanry
53rd Divisional Cyclist Company
Artillery: 1/1st Cheshire Brigade, RFA
265th, 266th and 267th Brigades, RFA
53rd Divisional Ammunition Column
Engineers: 1/1st and 2/1st Welsh Field Companies, RE
2/1st Cheshire Field Company, RE
Signal Service: 53rd Divisional Signal Company
ASC: 53rd Divisional Train
Medical: 1/1st, 1/2nd and 1/3rd Welsh Field Ambulances
Money’s Detachment
Colonel N. Money
1/1st Royal Gloucestershire Hussars, 2/4th Royal West Kent Regiment
‘A’ Section 15th Heavy Battery RGA
Ottoman Forces
Fourth Army
General Officer Commanding: Djemal Pasha
Field Commander: Colonel Baron Kress von Kressenstein
Group Tiller
Commander: Major von Tiller (in Gaza)
Three battalions, 79th Infantry Regiment
Three battalions, 125th Infantry Regiment
2nd Battalion, 81st Infantry Regiment
Two batteries of Austrian heavy mountain howitzers
One battery of German 10cm field guns
Two batteries of Ottoman field guns
One company cavalry
One company camelry
3rd Infantry Division (at Jemmame)
31st Infantry Regiment
32nd Infantry Regiment
16th Infantry Division (at Tell el Sharia)
47th Infantry Regiment
48th Infantry Regiment
53rd Infantry Division (marching south from Jaffa)
3rd Cavalry Division (at Beersheba)
6th Cavalry Regiment
7th Cavalry Regiment
138th Infantry Regiment
APPENDIX B:
NOTE ON THE STRUCTURE AND EQUIPMENT OF BRITISH AND
IMPERIAL FORCES
The basic infantry unit of the British and imperial forces was the battalion (under a colonel or lieutenant colonel). For the British and ANZACs, this consisted of just over 1,000 officers and men, divided into four companies (under a major or captain) of just over 200 men, plus a battalion headquarters. Each company was divided into four platoons (under a lieutenant), each of which was divided into four sections (under a sergeant or corporal). Each battalion had small sections of specialist troops attached; medical staff, signallers (and, later, wireless operators), and from late 1915 members of the Machine Gun Corps with heavy machine guns (before then, they had been members of the battalion).