PRAISE FOR MASTERS OF COMMAND
“Barry Strauss has done it again: Masters of Command combines the timeless wisdom of the classical world with the urgent realities of modern warfare. This is a stunning handbook on leadership—both on and off the battlefield.”
—Nathaniel Fick, author of One Bullet Away: The Making of a Marine Officer
“Barry Strauss has written a riveting, fast-paced, penetrating volume around three powerful war leaders—Alexander the Great, Hannibal, and Caesar. While other classicists draw on ancient philosophers for lessons on the life well lived, Professor Strauss looks to men of action and determination for lessons on leadership and strategy. It’s a great read, packed with terrific insights.”
—Karl Rove
“With Masters of Command, Barry Strauss further establishes himself as one of our premier historians of the classical world . . . . There are lessons here not only for budding military strategists but also for ‘great captains’ of the boardroom. And, most important, there is a crackling good read for anyone who delves into this insightful and entertaining new book.”
—Max Boot, Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow for National Security Studies, The Council on Foreign Relations, and author of War Made New: Technology, Warfare, and the Course of History: 1500 to Today
“Alexander, Hannibal, and Caesar—this is a book on leadership like no other. A rare combination of stirring dialogue, masterful ancient scholarship, and sage advice—both lessons and warnings. Just as Asian corporate planners read Sun Tzu, Western entrepreneurs and strategic thinkers will want to read Masters of Command.”
—Robert L. O’Connell, author of The Ghosts of Cannae: Hannibal and the Darkest Hour of the Roman Republic
“Barry Strauss has no superior and few counterparts as a scholar of ancient military history and a student of war.”
—Dennis Showalter, former president, Society for Military History
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CONTENTS
Author’s Note
Chronology
Glossary of Key Names
Maps
CHAPTER ONE: Ten Qualities of Successful Commanders
CHAPTER TWO: Attack
CHAPTER THREE: Resistance
CHAPTER FOUR: Clash
CHAPTER FIVE: Closing the Net
CHAPTER SIX: Knowing When to Stop
Conclusion
Photographs
Acknowledgments
About Barry Strauss
A Note on Sources
Notes
Index
To Donald Kagan, Walter LaFeber, and in memory of Alvin Bernstein
AUTHOR’S NOTE
Ancient names are spelled following the style of the standard reference work, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
Translations from the Greek or Latin are my own, unless otherwise noted.
CHRONOLOGY
(All dates are B.C.)
480–479
The Persian Empire invades Greece, led by King Xerxes, and is defeated.
356
Birth of Alexander
338
Macedon defeats Greeks at Battle of Chaeronea; Alexander commands cavalry
336
Philip of Macedon is assassinated; Alexander becomes king.
May–June 334
Alexander invades Persian Empire; Battle of the Granicus River
Autumn 334
Siege of Halicarnassus
June 333
Death of Memnon of Rhodes
November 333
Battle of Issus
January–August 332
Siege of Tyre
331
Greek revolt against Macedon
October 1, 331
Battle of Gaugamela
330
Alexander burns Persepolis; death of Darius; execution of Parmenio and Philotas
330–327
Campaigns in Bactria and Sogdiana
May 326
Battle of the Hydaspes
July 326
Mutiny in India
325
Alexander returns to Iran
324–323
Alexander prepares invasion of Arabia
Summer 324
Banquet at Opis
Autumn 324
Death of Hephaestion
June 10, 323
Death of Alexander
280–275
Pyrrhus’s invasion of Italy and Sicily
264–241
First Punic War
247
Birth of Hannibal
237
Hamilcar Barca goes to Spain, taking Hannibal with him
228
Death of Hamilcar; Hasdrubal the Handsome, Hamilcar’s son-in-law, now in command in Spain
226
Ebro treaty
221
Death of Hasdrubal the Handsome; Hannibal now in command in Spain
219
Hannibal captures Saguntum after eight-month siege; Rome issues ultimatum
218–201
Second Punic War
Autumn 218
Hannibal crosses the Alps; leaves his brother, Hasdrubal, in charge of Spain
November 218
Battle of the Ticinus River
December 218
Battle of the Trebia River
Spring 217
Romans defeat Carthaginian fleet off the Ebro River in Spain
June 21, 217*
Battle of Lake Trasimene
Summer–Fall 217
Fabius is appointed dictator and begins delaying strategy
August 2, 216
Battle of Cannae
Late 216
Capua joins Hannibal
215
Alliance between Hannibal and Macedonian king Philip V; Syracuse joins Hannibal
212
Hannibal takes Tarentum but Romans hold the citadel; Rome retakes Syracuse
211
Hannibal marches on Rome; Rome retakes Capua
210
Scipio takes New Carthage
209
Battle of Baecula; Rome retakes Tarentum
207
Battle of the Metaurus River; death of Hasdrubal, Hannibal’s brother
206
Battle of Ilipa
205
Mago invades Italy; Hannibal places inscription in temple of Hera Lacinia
203
Hannibal returns to Africa; death of Mago
Autumn 202
Battle of Zama
201
Carthage agrees to treaty with Rome ending Second Punic War
196
Hannibal serves as chief magistrate of Carthage
195–183
Hannibal in the East
183
Death of Hannibal
149–146
Third Punic War
146
Carthage is destroyed
100
Birth of Caesar
82–81
Sulla is dictator
66–62
Pompey conquers the East
61–60
Caesar campaigns in western Spain
58–50
Caesar conquers Gaul
January 12, 49
Caesar crosses the Rubicon
February 49
Siege of Corfinium
March 17, 49
Pompey
evacuates Brundisium
Spring–Autumn 49
Siege of Massilia
June–August 49
Battle of Ilerda
January 4, 48
Caesar crosses the Adriatic Sea
April–July 48
Dyrrachium campaign
August 9, 48
Battle of Pharsalus
September 28, 48
Death of Pompey
Autumn 48
Caesar meets Cleopatra
Winter 48–Spring 47
Caesar’s war in Egypt
August 2, 47
Battle of Zela
December 25, 47
46
Carthage refounded as a Roman colony
April 6, 46
Battle of Thapsus
Summer 46
Caesar celebrates four triumphs
March 17, 45
Battle of Munda
October 45
Caesar celebrates fifth triumph
February 44
Caesar named dictator for life
March 15, 44
Caesar assassinated
* * *
* All specific months and days in this list, from this point on, follow the Roman calendar in use at the time.
GLOSSARY OF KEY NAMES
Alexander the Great or Alexander III (356–323 B.C.) King of Macedon and conqueror of the Persian Empire.
Antipater (ca. 397–319 B.C.) Governor of Macedonia in Alexander’s absence, Antipater organized the defense of the home front against a revolt by the Greek city-states.
Bessus (d. 329 B.C.) Satrap of Bactria, organizer of coup against Darius III and pretender to the Persian throne as Artaxerxes V, he was captured and executed by Alexander.
Craterus (d. 321 B.C.) Probably Alexander’s best general after the death of Parmenio, he held important commands at Issus and Gaugamela and in Sogdiana and India.
Darius III (d. 330 B.C.) Ruled the Persian Empire beginning in 336 and organized resistance against Alexander, whom he faced in battle at Issus and Gaugamela.
Hephaestion (d. 324 B.C.) Alexander’s closest friend and possibly his lover, Hephaestion had enormous influence with the king.
Memnon of Rhodes (d. 333 B.C.) Greek mercenary in the service of Persia, he commanded the Persian fleet and handed Alexander his worst defeats before his untimely death.
Parmenio (ca. 400–330 B.C.) Veteran general of Philip II, he played a key role as a commander in Alexander’s pitched battles but was eventually executed as a rival.
Perdiccas (d. 321 B.C.) One of Alexander’s best generals, both as an infantry and cavalry commander.
Philip of Macedon or Philip II, King of Macedon (382–336 B.C.) Father of Alexander, he founded the Macedonian empire and began the project of conquering Persia.
Porus, Indian king who fought Alexander bravely in the Macedonian’s last pitched battle, at the Hydaspes (326 B.C.). He was rewarded by Alexander with additional land in spite of his defeat.
Ptolemy, Son of Lagus, or Ptolemy I (367–282 B.C.) One of Alexander’s leading generals, he later became king of Egypt and established a dynasty; he also wrote an important history of Alexander.
Spitamenes (d. 328 B.C.) Warlord of Sogdiana and one of Alexander’s toughest opponents for a while, but he faltered and his own men eventually killed him.
Gaius Flaminius (d. 217 B.C.) Prominent Roman politician and general who walked into Hannibal’s trap at Lake Trasimene and was cut down with most of his army.
Gaius Terentius Varro (fl. 218–200 B.C.) Consul and commanding Roman general at Cannae (216 B.C.), Varro, along with the other consul and second-in-command, Lucius Aemilius Paullus, carried out tactics that led to disaster.
Hamilcar Barca (d. 228 B.C.) Father of Hannibal and Carthage’s greatest general in his day, he began the conquest of southern Spain and may have conveyed a hatred of Rome to his sons.
Hannibal (247–183 B.C.) Carthage’s greatest general, he was the driving force for war with Rome and the strategist behind the invasion of Italy.
Hasdrubal (d. 207 B.C.) Hannibal’s younger brother, he was left in charge of Spain but lost it to the Romans. He marched his surviving troops overland to Italy, where he was defeated and killed at the Metaurus.
Mago (d. 203 B.C.) Hannibal’s youngest brother, he invaded northwestern Italy by sea in 205, in support of Hannibal, but he was defeated and wounded and died at sea on the way home.
Maharbal, Son of Himilco (fl. 217–216 B.C.) One of Hannibal’s main cavalry officers, he defeated a large Roman cavalry force after Trasimene and urged Hannibal to send his cavalry to Rome right after the victory at Cannae.
Masinissa (238–148 B.C.) King of Numidia whose defection from Carthage to Rome, with his excellent cavalry, sealed Hannibal’s fate at Zama.
Polybius (ca. 200–ca. 118 B.C.) Historian who wrote the best surviving account of the Second Punic War, Polybius was a Greek statesman who was sent to Italy as a Roman hostage, and rose to a position of influence with the Scipio family.
Pyrrhus of Epirus (319–272 B.C.) He invaded Italy to support Greek cities against Rome and won every battle but lost the war. He was both a role model and a warning to Hannibal.
Quintus Fabius Maximus Verucosus (d. 203 B.C.) Dictator in 217 and a prominent general and politician during most of the rest of the Second Punic War, he led the Roman policy of delay and attrition that stymied Hannibal in Italy.
Scipio Africanus or Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus (236–183 B.C.) Rome’s greatest general of the Second Punic War, he conquered Spain and North Africa and defeated Hannibal at Zama.
Cato, Marcus Porcius or Cato the Younger (95–46 B.C.) Caesar’s most bitter and most principled enemy, his suicide made him a symbol of republican liberty.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 B.C.) Rome’s greatest orator, Cicero hesitated during the civil war before supporting Pompey; eventually, he received a pardon from Caesar. He is most important to us for the light his letters and speeches throw on Roman public life.
Cleopatra or Cleopatra VII (69–30 B.C.) Queen of Egypt and mistress of Julius Caesar and, later, Mark Antony, she was a brilliant stateswoman who skillfully maneuvered for political power and to try to preserve her kingdom’s independence.
Gaius Julius Caesar (100–44 B.C.) The greatest general of the later Roman republic and perhaps of all Roman history, he was also a shrewd politician and an excellent writer.
Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (d. 48 B.C.) Roman politician and enemy of Caesar, whom he fought at Corfinium, Massilia, and Pharsalus.
Mark Antony or Marcus Antonius (83–30 B.C.) One of Caesar’s leading commanders, he proved a better general than politician.
Metellus Scipio or Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius Scipio (d. 46 B.C.) Governor of Syria, he commanded the center of Pompey’s lines at Pharsalus and fled to North Africa, where he led the opposition to Caesar and was defeated at Thapsus. He killed himself afterward.
Pharnaces II (63–47 B.C.) King of Bosporus (in modern Turkey) and son of Mithradates, a famous enemy of Rome, Pharnaces suffered a crushing defeat against Caesar at Zela and was killed soon after by a domestic enemy.
Pompey or Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (106–48 B.C.) Second only to Caesar as a Roman commander and statesman in the late republic, he went from being Caesar’s ally to his leading opponent—and the result was civil war.
Titus Labienus (ca. 100–45 B.C.) Caesar’s second-in-command in Gaul, he defected to Pompey and fought to the bitter end against his former chief.
1
TEN QUALITIES OF SUCCESSFUL COMMANDERS
YOU COULDN’T MISS THE KING. The Battle was already a muddle of men and horses in motion and yet he was unmistakable. He was short but muscular and he sat on a huge black steed. Shining in his splendid armor, with tall white plumes fixed on either side of his helmet, Alexander the Great, king of Macedon, led the second wave of the Companion Cavalry. A blast of bugles and a roar of batt
le cries had sent them off, galloping across the shallow Granicus River and up onto the opposite bank, under the waiting eyes of Persia’s finest horsemen. Flush with victory over the first wave of the Macedonian attack, the Persians charged the enemy with loud shouts.
Two Persian brothers zeroed in on Alexander himself. Rhoesaces and Sphithridates were both aristocrats; Sphithridates was governor of Ionia, a wealthy province on what is today Turkey’s Aegean coast. The brothers charged and Spithridates split Alexander’s helmet with his scimitar and grazed Alexander’s hair. Alexander struck back and drove his wooden lance into Spithridates’s chest. As Spithridates died, his brother swung his sword at Alexander’s naked head and aimed a deathblow. In the split second before he made contact his arm was sliced off by the deft sword of Cleitus the Black, a Macedonian officer. Alexander was saved. It was a May day in northwestern Anatolia (Turkey) in 334 B.C.
• • •
One hundred eighteen years later, the din of battle sounded across the rolling hills of southern Italy, where the armies of Rome and Carthage were locked in a death struggle outside the little town of Cannae. As the Roman legions marched steadily forward, the Carthaginians gritted their teeth and retreated, taking casualties as they went. Would they collapse under the Roman onslaught or would they draw the enemy into a trap?