dismissal of, by Lincoln, 90, 134–135
divided opinion of, 78, 79
General Orders of, in medical department reform, 80, 84, 88, 218
gradual emancipation views of, 55, 78, 135–136
“indecisiveness” in pursuing Lee at Antietam, 121, 124
at Jefferson Medical College, 12–14
leadership style, based on loyalty, 135, 151, 272
letter to wife, 293
on Letterman, 73–74
and Letterman, friendship with, 68, 135, 222, 271–272
overestimation of enemy strength, 100
personality of, 54–56
presidential election loss, 222–223
reinstated as commanding officer, 95
resignation of army commission by, 223
South Mountain battle, enemy intelligence discovered by, 101–102
on state of medical department after spring campaigns, 76
McDowell, Irvin, 42–43, 44, 49, 54
McKinley, William, 278
McNulty, John, 184
McParlin, Thomas, 93, 217, 218–219
Meade, George
appointment as commanding officer, 173–174, 272–273
declines to replace Hooker as commanding officer, 170
de-prioritizing of medical department by, 174–175, 179, 196
and Fort Meade, 23–24
at Fredericksburg, 142
inexperience of command, 177
post-Civil war, 288–289
retreat to winter camp, 207–208
Medical and Surgical History of the War of the Rebellion, 264, 276
medical department. See also battlefield medical reforms; military hospitals; military medical corps
budget under Hammond, 68
de-prioritizing of, by commanding officers, 162–163, 167–168, 171, 174–175, 179
post-war diminishment of, 263–264, 277
public perception of, improvement to, 215–216
reform bill, 62
reversion to outpost medicine after Civil War, 277
Sanitary Commission recognized as supplement to, 121, 184, 192
medical directors. See Guild,
LaFayette; Hewitt, Henry;
Irwin, Bernard; Letterman,
Jonathan; McParlin, Thomas;
Tripler, Charles
Medical Recollections of the Army of the Potomac, 238–241, 249
medical specialties, 157, 276
Meigs, Charles, 283
Meigs, Montgomery C., 91
Mexican-American War, 20–21, 32
military hospitals
at Antietam, 106–109
at battle of Fredericksburg, 141–142, 143–144
Camp Letterman, built near Gettysburg, 194–195, 196
enemy threat to, 166, 181, 184–185
establishment of in Frederick by Letterman, 101
general hospitals established, near battlefields, 115
improvements to
Irwin’s tent field hospital, on reclaimed ground, 155, 291
Letterman’s restructuring of, 124, 130–134, 148, 197, 270–271
patient transfer, 172, 194, 195, 271. See also ambulance system
pavilion design, 66–67, 132–133, 274, 286
personnel organization, 148, 149
preventive health care, 158–159, 197, 269
regimental affiliations eliminated in, 130–131
ventilation of, and infection control, 66, 104, 132–133, 158, 274
Keedysville field hospital, 109, 114–115, 116, 118
Letterman General Hospital, 266
makeshift field, 56–57, 106–107, 108–109, 115–116, 117, 179
medical care in
amputation, 118–119, 122–123, 143–144, 189, 274, 275
suffering of patients in recovery at, 47–48, 116, 133, 145, 189, 275–276
mobile field hospitals, 41
outpost medicine. See outpost medicine
patients removed from, by family members, 119–120
poor conditions in, 65–66
post-battle, at Gettysburg, 191
Smoketown field hospital, 114–115, 118, 119
specialty hospitals, 157, 276
in the Union Army, 217–218
military medical corps. See also
battlefield medical reforms;
European military medicine;
medical department; military hospitals;
outpost medicine
army surgeon general appointed by Congress, 18
and civilian doctors, 53–54, 193, 194
combat treatment, 56
contract doctors, 26–27, 40, 281–282
disease as cause of wartime death and, 17, 20–21, 56–57, 79, 277–278
doctor qualifications, 57–58, 191, 271
inadequacies in early, 19–21, 24, 94–95
Joseph Lovell’s pioneering standards in, 18–19
lack of preparedness at outbreak of Civil War, 42–45, 47–48
merit-based promotion, 57–58, 62, 67
mobile field hospitals, 41
outpost medicine, 18–19, 22, 40–41. See also outpost medicine
public pressure for changes, 62–63, 75–76. See also Sanitary Commission
screening of military doctors begins, 57–58
shortage of doctors in, 19, 20, 24, 26, 53–54, 94–95
and volunteer doctors, 42, 52–53, 99, 115, 122–123, 155–156, 193–194, 277
wound treatment, 35, 71, 85–86, 144–145, 274–275
military medical reforms. See also ambulance system; battlefield medical reforms; military hospitals; supply chain
first pavilion hospitals built, 66–67
“The Letterman System,” 153, 218, 240–241, 273, 278–279
preventive health care, 158–159, 197, 269
Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States, 234
Mine Run, 207–208
Minie ball, 85–86
Missouri Compromise, 8
Mitchell, John, 283
Monroe Doctrine, 8
Moore, Jane, 189
Mutter, Thomas, 283
Napoleonic Wars, 41, 79, 153–154
National Academy of Sciences, 228, 245, 292
National Museum of Civil War Medicine, 279
Navajo Indians, 34, 284–285
New York Medical Journal, 241
New York Times, 134, 216, 218, 221, 267
night battle, 103–105
night inquests, 254–255
nutrition and dietary concerns
farmer “profiteering” after Gettysburg, 192
food rations. See food rations
and health improvement, 273
Letterman’s improvements to, 157–160
Letterman’s restructuring of meal preparation, 80–83
meal preparation, 81–83
outpost medicine and, 33, 37
supply chain restructuring supplement, 129
and troop morale, 80, 129, 157, 270
oil boom
cost of shares, 229, 232
eventual productivity in California, 246, 292
expeditions discover oil fields, 227–229
prospectus for investors, 229
oil fields. See also Silliman, Benjamin, Jr.
California’s future, assessed by Peckham, 243
difficulties of drilling for oil, 235–236
eventual productivity in California, 246, 292
geological exploration and sample analysis, 242–244
of Pennsylvania and Ohio, 227, 234, 244
skeptics of California oil yields, 234–235, 237, 292
Ojai Rancho, California, 227, 228, 233, 235, 237, 242, 245
Old Needwood, 204–205
O’Leary, Charles, 148–149
Olmstead, Frederick Law, 51–52
outpost medicine
at Camp Fitzgerald, California, 40
dietary concerns, 33, 37
difficulties of treatment, and
relapses, 30–31
disease as cause of wartime death and, 18–19, 25
at Fort Meade, 21–24, 27–29
at Fort Ripley, reposting to, 29–31
at Fort Tejon, California, 37–38, 239
at Fort Union, 35–37
hospitals, 36
major outbreaks of disease at, 24, 27, 32–33
reversion to, after Civil War, 277
as standard military medical practice, 18–19
weather observations, 19, 25, 30
Paiute Indians, 38–40, 284
party politics, in San Francisco, 249–251, 258–259, 260
Peckham, Stephen, 235, 237, 242–244, 292
Peninsula Campaign, 69–71, 72, 90–91, 224, 289
Pennsylvania Railroad Corporation, 226, 229
Perley, Thomas, 149, 202
Peters, John, 275–276
Philadelphia & California Petroleum Company, 230, 233, 242, 244, 246
physicians. See military medical corps
Pickett’s Charge, 186
Pinkerton, Allan, 57
Pittsburgh Gazette, 191
Pope, John, 90, 92, 95
Pry House, 107–108, 110–111
Reeder, Andrew, 200, 201
reporting systems
battlefield action reports, 161–162
medical personnel, 158–159
for nutritional improvements, 157
Reynolds, John, 178
Ritchie, Craig, 7
Rosecrans, William Stark, 64, 223, 286
San Francisco
Chinese immigration issues, 247, 248, 251, 256–257, 258
San Francisco (continued)
impact of transcontinental railroad on economy of, 259–260
Letterman as coroner of, 253–260
Letterman General Hospital, 266
metropolitan development of, 247–248
party politics in, 249–251, 258–259, 260
prosperity of, wartime, 232
suicide incidents, 255, 256, 258
Sanitary Commission
anti-Finley, 68
anti-Finley and anit-Tripler, 59–60, 61, 65
Californian financial support of, 232
criticism of Letterman’s medical department by, 122
founding of, 50–51
Hammond supporters, 62, 64, 200
influence on medical reform, 62
and Letterman, 77–78, 137–138
on Letterman’s improvements, 148
medical supplies provided by, at Antietam, 116
on post-Antietam battle shortages, 120–121
recommendations of, 60–61
Rules for Preserving the Health of the Soldier, 60
as supplementary aid to Medical Department, 121, 184, 192
surgeon general’s office, campaign for changes to, 67
warm clothing provided by, after Fredericksburg, 147–148
sanitation issues
and dysentery, 21, 79, 231–232, 255, 273
General Orders for improvement to, 21
hazards posed by fallen dead, 120
housing standards established by Letterman, 158–160
Letterman’s improvements to, 81–84, 269–270
outhouse placement, 81, 278
Scott, Thomas A., 226–229, 244–245, 291–292
scurvy, 32–33, 69
secretary of war. See Stanton, Edwin Sedgwick, John, 110, 162, 166–167
Seven Days Battle, 72
Sharpsburg, 105, 107
Shiloh, 154–155
Shorb, James DeBarth, 242, 292
Silliman, Benjamin, Jr.
oil samples of, quality suspected, 234–235, 237–238, 242
oil samples, tampering of, 243–244, 245
reputation as petroleum expert, 227–229, 245
samples of oil, tainted, 292
swindling of mining speculators by, 245–246
Smith, J. C., 187–188
Smoketown field hospital, 114–115, 118, 119
South Mountain battle, 102–105
Southgate, Robert, 31
Spanish-American War, 277
specialty hospitals, 157, 276
Sprague, Thomas, 228, 242, 245
Spurr, Thomas Jefferson, 98, 99, 113, 118, 123
Stanton, Edwin
appoints investigative committee against Hammond, 200–202
Brinton on Stanton-Hammond feud, 222
feud with Hammond, 68–69, 95, 149, 216, 221–222, 286–287
Lincoln appoints as secretary of war, 65
personality of, 65, 200
Sternberg, George, 278
Stevens, George, 113–114, 148, 193
Stewart, William, 168
Stille, Charles, 120
Stillman, J. D. B., 260
Sumner, Edwin, 32, 109, 112, 140, 142–143
Sunken Road, 111–112
supply chain
at Antietam battle, 100–102, 115–116, 117, 123
cut off, after Gettysburg, lead to shortages, 191
de-prioritizing of medical department by, 196
inefficiencies, 125
Letterman’s standing orders regarding, 127, 128
medical requirements, 128
preparedness of army at Fredericksburg, 138–139
reliance on reliable rail routes, 176–177, 179, 193
restructuring of, into tiered system, 126–129, 138, 197, 270
supplemented by Sanitary Commission, 121, 184, 192
trains organized for patient transfer, 117–118
surgeon generals, army, 18–19, 24–25, 26, 40–41, 52, 59–60, 61, 67. See also Finley, Clement Alexander; Hammond, William; Lawson, Thomas; Lovell, Joseph
Swetland, Silas, 201
Taft, Helen “Nattie,” 265
tar seepages, 227
Taxpayers Union Party, 258–259, 260
“The Letterman System,” 153, 218, 240–241, 273, 278–279
The Medical and Surgical Reporter, 266
Thomson, J. Edgar, 226–227, 230
Tripler, Charles, 56, 58, 59–60, 63, 69–71, 72–73, 287–288
troop morale, 80, 129, 157, 270
typhoid fever, 27, 277
Union army. See also Army of the Potomac
defeat at Bull Run (Manassas Junction), 42–45, 46, 48, 49–50
defeat at Manassas Junction, 48
defeat at Second Battle of Bull Run, 91–95
disorganization of, 43, 45, 47
“walking wounded” of, 46–48
Union Party, 250, 251
United States Sanitary Commission. See Sanitary Commission
urban warfare, first, 141
volunteer doctors. See military medical corps
walking wounded, 46–48
Warren, Gouverneur K., 211–212, 218
Washington Morning Chronicle, 160
weaponry advances, 84–86
Webster, Warren, 156
“West Woods Massacre,” 110
Whitman, Walt, 133–134
Whitney, Josiah, 234–235, 237, 238, 244, 245, 292
Williamson, James, 228
Wilson, Henry, 211
Wood, R. C., 50–51, 52
World War I, 278–279
World War II, 266–267
yellow fever, 16, 20, 27