The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754– 1766 (new york:
alfred a. Knopf, 2000); Jane t. merritt, At the Crossroads: Indians and Empires on a Mid-
Atlantic Frontier, 1700– 1763 (chapel hill: University of north carolina press, 2003); david l.
preston, Braddock’s Defeat: The Battle of the Monongahela and the Road to Revolution (new
york: Oxford University press, 2015); Thomas s. abler, “Kayahsota,” in Dictionary of Canadian
Biography, vol. 4 (University of toronto/Université laval, 2003), http://www.biographi.ca/en/
bio/kayahsota_4e.html.
14. historians disagree about guyasuta’s importance in forging the 1763 alliance. gregory
dowd, the author of the leading book- length study of the war, argues that his role has been
overstated: dowd, War Under Heaven, 105– 6. see also tanner, Atlas, 48; White, Middle
Ground, 271– 77; Thomas s. abler, Cornplanter: Chief Warrior of the Al egany Senecas (syracuse,
ny: syracuse University press, 2007), 30.
15. dgW 2:304, 310; Minutes of Conferences, Held at Fort Pitt, in April and May, 1768 (phil-
adelphia: William goddard, 1769), 13– 14, 22; proceedings of george croghan with the indians,
1 aug. 1770, enclosed in croghan to Thomas gage, 8 aug. 1770, as 94, tgp.
16. croghan, journal, 1 June 1771, box 8, folder 11, gcp; White, Middle Ground, 227– 40;
anderson, Crucible of War, 24– 32, 61.
17. dgW 2:304 (“head”); isaac hamilton to gage, 16 aug. 1772, as 113, tgp (“influence”);
gage to William Johnson, 7 Oct. 1772, pWJ 12:994 (“true situation”); alexander mcKee to John-
son, 31 dec. 1772, pWJ 8:679; Johnson to gage, 18 nov. 1772, pWJ 8:638– 41; crBJ 7 sept. 1775;
mcconnel , A Country Between, 79– 80; mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 41– 42, 55.
18. mcclure 49– 50, 58– 59, 84– 86, 99 (“underbrush,” 58; advantage,” 59; “resentment,” 85);
Jones 89 (“game”), 101– 2 (no meat”); Minutes of Conferences, 18; White mingo, speech to com-
missioners, 21 aug. 1776, morgan 2:15– 16; [griffin greene] to “peter,” n.d., northwest territory
collection, William l. clements library, University of michigan, ann arbor; mcconnel , A
Country Between, 210; stephen aron, How the West Was Lost: The Transformation of Kentucky
from Daniel Boone to Henry Clay (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 1996), 6, 13– 16,
18, 21– 27; nathaniel scheidley, “hunting and the politics of masculinity in cherokee
184
notes to pages 10–12
treaty- making, 1763– 75,” in Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples,
1600– 1850, ed. martin daunton and rick halpern (philadelphia: University of pennsylvania
press, 1999), 167– 85. For precolonial forest management, see r. W. Kimmerer and F. K. lake,
“The role of indigenous Burning in land management,” Journal of Forestry 99, no. 11 (1 nov.
2001): 36– 41; marc d. abrams and gregory J. nowacki, “native americans as active and pas-
sive promoters of mast and Fruit trees in the eastern Usa,” Holocene 18, no. 7
(2008): 1123– 37.
19. mcclure 61 (“well built,” “large corn field”), 67– 68 (“regular & thrifty,” 68), 107; cress-
well 74– 75; Jones 52, 56, 57, 87; John harvie, John montgomery, and Jasper yeates to William
Wilson, 3 aug. 1776, commissioners of indian affairs to John anderson, 5 sept. 1776, and an-
derson to commissioners, 24 sept. 1776, yeates; george morgan, letterbook and journal, 14– 16,
30– 31, hsp; charles Beatty, The Journal of a Two Months Tour . . . to the Westward of the Alegh-
Geny Mountains (london: William davenhill and george pearch, 1768), 13– 14n, 71– 73n. For
anipassicowa’s name, cf. cornstalk, speech, 13 Oct. 1775, rUO 115– 16; tanner, Atlas, maps 13, 15,
16; mcconnel , A Country Between, 209.
20. cresswell 72, 73, 75– 79, 82, 85, 129, 141; Beatty, Journal of a Two Months Tour, 62; pro-
ceedings of george croghan, 2 aug. 1770, enclosed in croghan to gage, 8 aug. 1770, as 94,
tgp; peter c. mancall, Deadly Medicine: Indians and Alcohol in Early America (ithaca, ny:
cornell University press, 1995). The literature on great lakes indian women and trade is large.
see sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in Fur- Trade Society, 1670– 1870 (norman: Uni-
versity of Oklahoma press, 1980); lucy eldersveld murphy, A Gathering of Rivers: Indians,
Métis, and Mining in the Western Great Lakes, 1737– 1832 (lincoln: University of nebraska press,
2000); sleeper- smith, Indian Women and French Men; Karen marrero, “On the edge of the
West: The roots and routes of detroit’s Urban eighteenth century,” in Frontier Cities: Encoun-
ters at the Crossroads of Empire, ed. Jay gitlin, Barbara Berglund, and adam arenson (philadel-
phia: University of pennsylvania press), 67– 86.
21. cresswell 77– 78; ddZ 1:25; mcconnel , A Country Between; schutt, Peoples of the River
Val eys; Warren, Worlds the Shawnees Made; sami lakomäki, Gathering Together: The Shawnee
People Through Diaspora and Nationhood, 1600– 1870 (new haven, ct: yale University press,
2014), 76– 77. For preceding centuries of dispersal, see daniel K. richter, Before the Revolution:
America’s Ancient Pasts (cambridge, ma: harvard University press, 2011), ch. 1.
22. mmd 225 (“Wyandot language”), 148, 184, 345, 404, 469; mcclure 86 (“indian acquain-
tance”); Jones 58, 60– 61, 85– 88. On captive adoption, see christina snyder, Slavery in Indian
Country: The Changing Face of Captivity in Early America (cambridge, ma: harvard University
press, 2010); daniel K. richter, “War and culture: The iroquois experience,” Wil iam and Mary
Quarterly 40, no. 4 (Oct. 1983): 528– 59.
23. colin g. calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country: Crisis and Diversity in
Native American Communities (cambridge: cambridge University press, 1995), 160; schutt,
Peoples of the River Val eys, 57, 112, 133– 34, 156– 58; robert s. grumet, The Munsee Indians: A
History (norman: University of Oklahoma press, 2009), 3– 7, 18– 19, 301n30; cary miller,
Ogimaag: Anishinaabeg Leadership, 1760– 1845 (lincoln: University of nebraska press,
2010), 237n2; erik r. seeman, The Huron- Wendat Feast of the Dead: Indian- European Encoun-
ters in Early North America (Baltimore: Johns hopkins University press, 2011), 9– 12; tyler Boul-
ware, Deconstructing the Cherokee Nation: Town, Region, and Nation Among Eighteenth- Century
Cherokees (gainesville: University press of Florida, 2011); Warren, Worlds the Shawnees
Made, 77– 78; John l. steckley, The Eighteenth- Century Wyandot: A Clan- Based Study (Waterloo,
notes to pages 13–17
185
Ontario: Wilfrid laurier University press, 2014), 5– 6, 40– 41; lakomäki, Gathering Together, 14,
23– 24.
24. mmd 18n42; michael Witgen, An Infinity of Nations: How the Native New World Shaped
Early America (philadelphia: University of pennsylvania press, 2012); steckley, Eighteenth-
Century Wyandot, 27; lakomäki, Gathering Together, 17– 18; michael a. mcdonnel , Masters of
Empire: Great Lakes Indians and the Making of America (new york: hill and Wang, 2015), 9– 13;
heidi Bohaker, “Nindoodemag: The significance of algonquian Kinship networks in the east-
ern great lakes region, 1600– 1701,” Wil iam and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 1 (Jan. 2006): 23– 52.
25. mmd 357 (“widespread
”), 339, 391– 92, 425, 436, 490; Beatty, Journal of a Two Months
Tour, 42– 43; mcclure 76– 77.
26. lakomäki, Gathering Together, 18, 35– 36, 39– 40; White, Middle Ground, 325– 26; daniel
K. richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European
Colonization (chapel hill: University of north carolina press, 1992), 42– 43; gail d. macleitch,
Imperial Entanglements: Iroquois Change and Persistence on the Frontiers of Empire (philadel-
phia: University of pennsylvania press, 2011), 22– 23.
27. Jones 73– 74 (“strangers”); cresswell 82 (“no more honor”), 75 (“poor house”); george
croghan, answers to a questionnaire regarding indians, [1773?], box 7, folder 38, gcp (“never
suffer”); Joseph Jackson, interview, apr. 1844, draper 11c:62.5– 6; James smith, An Account of
the Remarkable Occurrences in the Life and Travels of Col. James Smith (lexington, Ky: John
Bradford, 1799), 139– 40, 147; mcclure 61– 84.
28. Kathleen duVal, The Native Ground: Indians and Colonists in the Heart of the Continent
(philadelphia: University of pennsylvania press, 2007); Witgen, Infinity of Nations; mcdonnel ,
Masters of Empire; Brett rushforth, “slavery, the Fox Wars, and the limits of alliance,” William and Mary Quarterly 63, no. 1 (2006): 53– 80; Juliana Barr, “geographies of power: mapping indian Borders in the ‘Borderlands’ of the early southwest,” William and Mary Quarterly 68, no. 1
(Jan. 2011): 5– 46.
29. mcconnel , A Country Between, 225– 29; hermann Wellenreuther, “White eyes and the
delawares’ Vision of an indian state,” Pennsylvania History 68, no. 2 (spring 2001): 139– 61; la-
komäki, Gathering Together, 78– 84.
30. in this respect, the Ohio indians’ dilemma mirrored that of the nascent United states,
whose leaders labored to mold their new nation into a form that european nations would recog-
nize as legitimate: eliga h. gould, Among the Powers of the Earth: The American Revolution and
the Making of a New World Empire (cambridge, ma: harvard University press, 2012).
31. mcclure 104– 5; edward hand to Katherine hand, 4 and 10 June 1777, box 1, folder 2,
ehp; William irvine to anne irvine, 8 Jan. 1782, draper 2aa:10.
32. mcclure 105– 6.
33. henry stuart, account of proceedings with indians, 25 aug. 1776, cO5/77 fol. 182
(“wherever a Fort”); Beatty, Journal of a Two Months Tour, 71– 73n; croghan to Thomas Whar-
ton, 9 dec. 1773, “letters of colonel george croghan,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and
Biography 15, no. 4 (1891): 437; cresswell 38, 39; mcclure 45– 46, 130; J. mcclure, “ends of the
american earth,” 61– 75; preston, Texture of Contact, ch. 6.
34. cresswell 62 (“two englishmen”), 38 (“acting”); mcclure 105– 6 (“drinking parties”), 47
(“illiterate preachers”), 43, 103; charles edmonstone to gage, 17 may 1772, as 111, tgp; Beatty,
Journal of a Two Months Tour, 10– 22; albert h. tillson, Gentry and Common Folk: Political
Culture on a Virginia Frontier, 1740– 1789 (lexington: University press of Kentucky, 1991), 62,
66– 68.
186
notes to pages 17–23
35. cresswell 70; Thomas p. slaughter, The Whiskey Rebel ion: Frontier Epilogue to the Amer-
ican Revolution (new york: Oxford University press, 1986), 66, 70– 71; aron, How the West Was
Lost, 21– 23; r. eugene harper, The Transformation of Western Pennsylvania, 1770– 1800 (pitts-
burgh, pa: University of pittsburgh press, 1991).
36. croghan to gage, 2 nov. 1771, box 5, folder 31, gcp (“Unruly settlers”); mcclure 53– 54
(“from Justice”); donna B. munger, Pennsylvania Land Records: A History and Guide for Re-
search (Wilmington, de: scholarly resources, 1991), 79– 82; J. mcclure, “ends of the american
earth,” 195– 96; d. Barr, “contested land,” 235– 38, 256– 59.
37. Boyd crumrine, ed., Virginia Court Records in Southwestern Pennsylvania: Records of the
District of West Augusta and Ohio and Yohogania Counties, Virginia, 1775– 1780 (Baltimore: ge-
nealogical publishing company, 1974), 32– 33, 35, 38, 47, 60; eric hinderaker, Elusive Empires:
Constructing Colonialism in the Ohio Val ey, 1673– 1800 (new york: cambridge University press,
1997), 202; Francis s. Fox, “The prothonotary: linchpin of provincial and state government in
eighteenth- century pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania History 59, no. 1 (Jan. 1992): 41– 53; J. mcclure,
“ends of the american earth,” 272– 81; d. Barr, “contested land,” 297– 99.
38. arthur J. alexander, “pennsylvania’s revolutionary militia,” Pennsylvania Magazine of
History and Biography 69, no. 1 (1945): 15– 25; hannah Benner roach, “The pennsylvania militia
in 1777,” Pennsylvania Genealogical Magazine 23, no. 3 (1964): 161– 230; Francis s. Fox, “pennsyl-
vania’s revolutionary militia law: The statute That transformed the state,” Pennsylvania His-
tory 80, no. 2 (spring 2013): 204– 14; michael a. mcdonnel , The Politics of War: Race, Class, and
Conflict in Revolutionary Virginia (chapel hill: University of north carolina press,
2007), 92– 93.
39. mcclure 119, 41– 42, 105; Warren r. hofstra and robert d. mitchell, “town and coun-
try in Backcountry Virginia: Winchester and the shenandoah Valley, 1730– 1800,” Journal of
1770– 1800.
40. proceedings of george croghan with the indians, 1 aug. 1770, enclosed in croghan to
gage, 8 aug. 1770, as 94, tgp (“no head man”); tillson, Gentry and Common Folk, 61– 63;
richard r. Beeman, “deference, republicanism, and the emergence of popular politics in
eighteenth- century america,” Wil iam and Mary Quarterly 49, no. 3 (1992): 401– 30. For swear-
ingen’s background, see J. mcclure, “ends of the american earth,” 277– 78, 280– 81; petition of
the captains of macKay’s battalion, 16 Oct. 1776, yeates; daniel Brodhead to all concerned, 20
Feb. 1781, box 1, vol. 1, dBp; tillson, Gentry and Common Folk.
chapter 1
1. Francis Fauquier to William murray, 12 apr. 1767, The Official Papers of Francis Fauquier,
Lieutenant Governor of Virginia, 1758– 1768, 3 vols., ed. george reese (charlottesville: University
press of Virginia, 1981– 83), 3:1437– 38 (“meritorious act”); Fauquier to earl of shelburne, 24 may
1767, Papers of Francis Fauquier, 3:1480– 81 (“wish[ed] for nothing”); murray to Thomas gage, 16
may 1767, as 65, tgp; george croghan, abstract from journal, 24 may 1766, enclosed in
croghan to gage, 26 may 1766, as 51, tgp; John penn to the earl of shelburne, 21 Jan. 1767,
crp 9:352– 53. peter was likely identical to either “cutfinger peter” or “John peters,” both of
whom were listed as delaware war leaders at a 1765 peace council at Fort pitt: croghan, “Journal
of transactions,” 8 may 1765, crp 9:256.
2. richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes
Region, 1650– 1815 (new york: cambridge University press, 1991), 340 (“ragtag refugees”);
notes to pages 23–28
187
michael n. mcconnel , A Country Between: The Upper Ohio Val ey and Its Peoples, 1724– 1774
(lincoln: University of nebraska press, 1992), 240, 258 (“state of war”); alden Vaughan, “Fron-
tier Banditti and the indians: The paxton Boy
s’ legacy,” Pennsylvania History 51, no. 1 (1984): 8,
6; daniel p. Barr, “contested land: competition and conflict along the Upper Ohio Frontier,
1744– 1784” (ph.d. diss., Kent state University, 2001), 208.
3. William Johnson to gage, 18 apr. 1767, The Documentary History of the State of New York,
4 vols., ed. e. B. O’callaghan (albany, ny: Weed, parsons, & co., 1850– 51), 2:849 (“any trad-
ers”); Fauquier to murray, 12 apr. 1767, Papers of Francis Fauquier, 3:1437– 38; gage to Johnson, 5
apr. 1767, pWJ 12:295– 96; gage to Johnson, 28 June 1767, pWJ 5:574; david l. preston, The Tex-
ture of Contact: European and Indian Settler Communities on the Frontiers of Iroquoia, 1667– 1783
(lincoln: University of nebraska press, 2009), 220.
4. John steel et al. to penn, 2 apr. 1768, crp 9:507; John holmes to penn, 7 Feb. 1768, crp
9:464; penn to steel et al., 24 Feb. 1768, crp 9:483; minutes of the provincial council, 16 apr.
1768, crp 9:481– 82; preston, Texture of Contact, 256– 58.
5. nicholas B. Wainwright, ed., “george croghan’s Journal: april 3, 1759 to april [30], 1763,”
Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 71, no. 4 (Oct. 1947): 376, 378, 405 (“plenty of
game,” 405); dgW 2:295, 293n1; croghan, abstract from journal, 23 may 1766, enclosed in
croghan to gage, 26 may 1766, as 51, tgp; [William crawford], “a map of the land abt. red
stone and Fort pitt,” [1770?], library of congress geography and map division, http://hdl.loc
.gov/loc.gmd/g3820.ct000360 (accessed 10 sept. 2016); Thomas hutchins, “a new map of the Western parts of Virginia, pennsylvania, maryland and north carolina” (london, 1778);
charles Beatty, The Journal of a Two Months Tour . . . to the Westward of the Alegh- Geny Moun-
tains (london: William davenhill and george pearch, 1768), 29– 30, 34– 35; neville B. craig, ed.,
“The Journal of george croghan [1765],” Olden Time 1, no. 9 (sept. 1846): 404; murray to gage,
16 may 1767, as 65, tgp; mcclure 49, 53, 56– 58, 100; helen hornbeck tanner, ed., Atlas of Great
Lakes Indian History (norman: University of Oklahoma press, 1987), 44– 48 and maps 9, 13, and