as deeply connected network, 152
design of, 46–47, 85, 147, 153, 317, 429, 442–443, 444, 446–449, 479, 517n
digital processes in, 71, 85, 126, 147–151, 442, 483, 519n
emergent properties of, 151, 463–464, 475, 477–478
evolution as learning paradigm of, 152
evolution of, 16, 27, 129, 143, 146, 505n–506n, 522n
experience beamers and, 316, 380
fractal nature of, 46–47, 68, 446–449
frontal lobe of, 505n
genome and, 89, 147, 180, 428–429, 440, 443–444, 523n
GNR age impact on, 307–309, 312–320, 564n, 586n–587n
gray-matter tissue in, 27, 505n–506n; see also cortex, cerebral
hippocampus of, see hippocampus
as holographic, 148, 152, 483
identity and, 383–387
imperfections of, 151–152
implants and, see neural implants
left prefrontal region of, 175
limitations of, 8–9, 20, 27, 143, 203, 227, 340, 445, 503n
music in, 519n
nanobots in, 28, 163–167, 201, 300, 316, 374
nonbiological intelligence in, 28, 201–202, 377, 472
parallelism of, 8, 25–26, 130, 148, 149, 150, 270, 439, 462, 483, 504n
parietal lobes of, 202
pattern recognition and, 8, 16, 25–26, 124, 143, 149, 150, 173, 441, 456, 501n
patterns of, 325, 371, 383–384, 463–464, 475, 477–478
plasticity of, 27, 151, 172–178, 202, 203, 445
quantum computing and, 450–452
quantum wave collapse in, 450–451
randomness of, 149, 151, 152, 153, 440, 443–444, 449
redesign of, 27, 307–309, 383
repetition and redundancy in, 146, 147, 428
self-organizing processes of, 25–26, 148, 152, 153, 293, 371, 440, 443–444, 446, 456, 460, 483, 501n, 523n
size of, 452
slow circuitry of, 150
spindle cells in, 191–194, 192, 468
as “sub-critical,” 259
surgery on, 315–316, 384
three-dimensional organization of, 68, 72
-to-brain communication, 316, 585n
uploading of, 166, 198–202, 324, 451, 548n–549n
virtual reality and, 487
weight of, 137
see also computational capacity of the human brain, achieving of
brain, of primates, 27, 152
brain cells, gene therapy and, 215, 216
brain models, 407, 443, 445
analytic vs. neuromorphic, 146
early attempts at, 154–157
electronic neurons and, 173
latest technology as, 458
neuron, 4, 172–173, 428, 443, 446, 452, 455
peeling the onion and, 148–149
of regions, 177–194, 197, 265, 292–293, 428, 440, 443, 452, 479
reverse engineering and, 4, 25, 143–149, 153, 167–194, 196, 197, 428, 439, 538n, 541n–547 n
right level for, 153, 167–169
subneural, 169–172, 541n
see also neuromorphic models
brain reverse engineering, 143–203, 265, 317, 377, 407, 435, 439, 446, 456, 485, 522n, 537n–549n
accelerated pace of, 195–198, 293, 428
brain compared with computer and, 149–153, 461, 463
computational capacity and, 122, 127
exponential growth of, 73, 144, 196–98
GNR age and, 307–308
neural nets and, 269–270, 574n
at neuron level, 163–167, 440, 444, 530n
overview of, 144–149, 537n–538n
reverse engineering of computer compared with, 157–158
self-understanding and, 4, 198
sound localization and, 123–124
strong AI and, 84, 93, 194–195, 293, 294, 407, 461
tools for, 25, 144–145, 158–162, 197
see also brain models; brain scanning; neuromorphic models
brain scanning, 73, 443
bandwidth of, 25, 144, 161, 197, 292
brain models and, 147, 171–174, 178, 292–293, 407
destructive, 161–162
exponential growth of, 25, 161, 197, 407
fMRI and, 150, 158, 160–161
imaging time and, 160, 160
noninvasive, 158, 159, 162–163, 164, 197
price-performance of, 144, 197, 265, 292
resolution improved in, 25, 158, 159, 160–163, 167, 175, 197, 265, 292, 407, 428
reverse engineering and, 25, 144, 147, 158–67, 171–172, 175, 176, 254, 262
tools for, 158–162, 197, 428
uploading the brain and, 166, 198–202, 324, 548n–549n
using nanobots, 163–167, 197, 200, 262, 293
brain simulations, 144, 145, 178, 196, 197, 265, 292, 293, 407, 428, 439, 445, 450, 452
functional, 122–25, 148, 150, 527n, 529n
neuromorphic, 122, 124–125, 438, 440, 527n, 530n
University of Texas cerebellum, 182–183, 182, 545n
brain stem, 172, 179, 181, 193, 203
Brain Tissue Scanner, 161–162
Brand, Stewart, 588n
Bray, Hiawatha, 535n
Bremermann, Hans J., 133, 535n
Brenner, Donald W., 562n, 563n
Brickell, Edie, 382
Bridis, Ted, 598n
Brigade Combat Teams (BCTs), 331–332
Bright, R. K., 554n
Brill, Eric, 287
British Columbia Cancer Agency, 514n
Britt, Robert Roy, 580n
Broca, Paul, 173
Broderick, Damien, 24, 504n, 569n
Brody, Herb, 591n
Brooks, David, 601n
Brooks, Rodney, 263, 265, 300, 333
Brousseau, M. E., 554n
Browman, Steve, 597n
Brownian motion, 254, 388, 520n, 570n
Brumfiel, G., 585n
Brun, Todd, 140–141
bubonic plague, 398, 402
Buchan, Bruce, 286
Buchanan, Mark, 592n
Buckingham, Edgar, 536n
Buddha, 392
Buddhism, 380, 387, 388
Buechel, C., 543n
Büettrich, Sebastian, 533n
buildings, 250, 397
as centralized technologies, 340, 409, 420, 421
Buonomano, Dean, 545n
Burch, Greg, 598n
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 100
Burenhult, G., 502n
Burke, Peter, 113–114, 115, 527n
Burkhard, Barbara, 542n
business, AI systems in, 271, 283–284, 287
Business Communication Company, 279
business cycles, 97
business models, 7, 103, 426
intellectual property and, 339–340
outdated, 96, 97
business-to-business (B2B) revenues, 103, 104
business-to-consumer (B2C) revenues, 103, 104
Busis, Neil A., 537n
busy-beaver problems, 455–456, 601n
Butler, Samuel, 96, 205, 549n
Byrne, John H., 505n
CA-125, 282
Cacares, M., 505n
Cagin, Tahir, 563n
calcium, 121, 162, 399
calculus, theorem of, 519n
California, stem-cell research in, 471
California, University of, 113–114, 115, 138, 173, 174, 175, 505n–506n, 527n
California Institute of Technology (Caltech), 194, 195, 240
Callaway, E., 541n
Cambrian explosion, 17, 18, 20, 38, 47, 441
cameras, 113, 162
Canada, gene therapy in, 216
cancer, 210, 212, 399, 544n
bioengineered treatments for, 217–218, 409
blood-brain barrier and, 165
DNA mutations and, 219
drugs for, 212, 303, 304
evo
lution used by, 511n
gene expression and, 214, 219, 422
genetic profiling and, 215
nanotechnology and, 233, 243, 255, 303, 306
pattern recognition and, 282
vaccines for, 217, 218
canonical milestones, 19, 20, 502n–503n
capital, investment, 96, 106, 339, 395, 524n
capitalism, 394, 406
carbon, 230, 246, 251, 253
in atomic-force microscope, 536n
biological life and, 16, 207, 210, 360, 361, 500n
in biomass, 399, 425, 595n
in biosphere, 33
black holes and, 360, 361
in Epoch One, 14–15
in nanobots, 164, 238, 352, 399, 400
in nanotubes, 27, 113, 114, 229, 230, 234–235, 238, 246, 250, 375, 527n
in synthesis of diamondoid material, 239–240, 563n
three-dimensional shapes and, 15, 85
in Zeus, 350
carbon dioxide, 244, 249, 252, 306, 400
carbon monoxide, 244
cardiovascular disease, 581n
Carducci, M. A., 554n
Carey, John, 580n, 581n
Carlisle, Brian, 285
Carnegie Mellon University (CMU), 275, 285
Carnivore e-mail snooping system, 413
Carroll, Lewis, 326
Carroll, Rory, 598n
cars, 100, 287, 288, 311
nanotechnology and, 230, 246, 247, 252
case-based reasoning, 285
Caspari, Rachel, 218–219
Casseday, John, 545n
cassette tape, 53, 327
cataracts, 549n
cats, consciousness of, 467, 468
CD-ROMs, 54
celebrities, virtual, 318
C. elegans, 221
Celera Genomics, 216
Cell, 176, 543n
cell membranes, 232, 251, 256–257
cell phones, 100, 113, 282, 346, 406, 444, 473
in clothing, 312
cost of, 95, 338, 339
mass use of, 42, 49, 49, 50, 95, 469, 512n
cells, 148, 198, 208, 383, 483
aging of, 209
as computers, 221
death of, 215, 218
energy for, 219–220, 583n
gene expression and, 213, 551n
loss and atrophy of, 220
toxic, 219
transdifferentiation and, 222–223, 471, 556n–557n
see also nucleus; specific kinds of cells
cell therapies, 214, 222–23, 471, 556n–557n
cellular automata, 85–91, 93, 359, 518n–522n
class 4, 88–91, 88, 93, 520n
kinematic, 235
predictability and, 88–89, 90, 519n, 521n–522n
rule 110 and, 87–89, 88, 523n
cellular gliders, 520n
cellular logic switch, 221
Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 514n
centralized technologies, 340, 409, 420, 421
cerebellum, 68, 124, 125
brain reverse engineering and, 144, 147, 169, 178–183, 180, 182
fiber cells of, 179, 180, 180, 181, 545n
genome and, 180
muscles and, 179, 181, 260
neuromorphic model of, 178–183, 180, 182
prediction and, 191
skill formation and, 178–179, 194, 260
wiring pattern of, 180, 180, 449
cerebral palsy, 308
Cerf, V., 516n
Chaboyer, Brian, 590n
Chalmers, David J., 385, 594n
Chang, Kenneth, 567n
Chang, Xiao Yan, 561n, 562n
chaos, 198, 459–462
of brain, 148, 149, 151, 152, 178, 198, 440, 446, 449, 450, 452, 460, 462, 483
evolution and, 40, 41, 45–46, 509n
GNR age and, 73
pattern recognition and, 441
chaos theory, 89, 151, 271, 480
chaotic computing, 145, 173, 441, 475
character recognition, 97, 265, 294, 337
chat rooms, 272
chatterbot, 272, 294
Chaudhuri, Swades, 248
chemical energy, 230
chemical industry, 252
chemistry, 14–15, 15, 167–168, 411
chemotherapy drugs, 511n
Cheng, J. C., 552n
Chenn, Anjen, 505n
chess, 126, 290
computer, 8, 146, 274–278, 274, 441, 459, 498n
recursive search and, 272, 577n–580n
chickens, brain-stem neurons in, 172
Chiesa, G., 553n
children:
brain of, 152, 177
dyslexic, 175
fears of, 241
handwriting learned by, 181
spindle cells in, 193–194
chimpanzees, 20
humans compared with, 5, 39, 192, 505n, 509n
thumbs of, 39, 509n
China, 54, 99, 469
Chinese Room analogy:
of author, 465–466
of Searle, 430, 458–466
Chinnery, P. F., 555n
chips:
design of, 122, 231
gene (microarrays), 214–215, 552n
hippocampal, 188
manufacturing of, 42, 119, 122
neural, 188, 195
neural nets and, 270, 575n
silicon, see silicon chips
chlorinated phenols, 252
Choi, Charles, 530n, 537n, 548n
cholesterol, 211, 217, 554n
Chomsky, Noam, 190
Chown, Marcus, 590n
chromosomes, 218, 219, 232, 510n
evolution of, 42, 92
parity errors and, 208
X, 510n, 555n–556n
Y, 42, 208
Church, Alonzo, 453–454, 601n
Churchill, Winston, 35, 320, 324
Churchland, Patricia, 473
Church-Turing thesis, criticism from, 429, 453–456, 601n
Ciccolo, Nate, 392–393
circle of empathy, 386
circulatory system, 442, 443
cities:
as centralized technologies, 340, 409, 420, 421
early, 17, 18
civilization:
destruction of, 345–346, 361
search for intelligent, see SETI
type II, 344, 348, 353
type III, 344
civilization, human-machine, 26, 45
destiny of, 3–4, 5, 128, 202, 299, 390
nonbiological intelligence derived from, 317
see also Singularity
civil liberties, 421–422
civil services model, 472
Civil War, U.S., 331
Clark, Gregory, 587n
Clarke, Arthur C., 4, 51, 427
Clinical Proteomics Program, 282
clock speed, microprocessor, 61, 63, 66
cloning:
human, 221–225, 556n
therapeutic, 214, 220, 221, 222, 224, 256, 323
transdifferentiation, 222–224, 556n–557n
closed systems, second law of thermodynamics and, 510n
“closed timelike curve” (CTC), 140–141
coal, 243, 244, 246
cobalt, 119
cochlea, 184, 185, 438
cochlear canal, 165
cochlear implants, 195, 384
cocktail-party effect, 184
codons, 16, 208, 517n
Cognex Corporation, 285
cognitive skills, see specific skills
colds, common, 402, 418
Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, 171–172
cold war, 374, 396, 401
Colicos, Michael A., 175–176
Collas, P., 557n
colliculus cells, 184
Collier, C. P., 528n
Collins, Philip G., 527n
Colman, A., 556n
colon, 304
colonization, 352–353
colorectal cancer, 552n
Colton, Richard J., 563n
columnar structures, 160
comets, 281, 405–406
commerce:
e-commerce, 13, 103–105, 104, 263, 264
fraud in, 269
common operating picture (COP), 332
commonsense knowledge, 177, 267, 292
communications, communications technologies, 3, 261, 308, 313, 347
broadband, 278
decentralization of, 396, 406
exponential growth in, 35, 76–77, 77, 102, 112, 245–246, 470
mass adoptions of, 48–50, 48–50, 97, 511n–512n
military, 332–333
nanotechnology and, 248–249, 434
personalized customer, 103
price-performance of, 77, 77, 243
radio transmissions, 344–349, 590n
virtual reality and, 341
wireless, see wireless communications
see also telecommunications; telephones
compact discs, 53, 519n
complexity, 44–47, 198, 209
of brain, 89, 145, 147, 198, 200, 428–429, 430, 442–450, 463, 465, 475, 523n
of brain models, 4, 153, 168–169
class 4 automata and, 89–90, 91, 522n
of digestion, 301
of emotion, 192
exponential growth of, 20, 358
failure rates and, 429, 456
increase in, 15, 36–40, 44, 45, 47, 85, 91, 93, 359, 360, 389, 398, 476, 507n
of neurons, 143–144, 153, 155, 197, 455
order compared with, 38–40, 90, 372
physics and, 86, 519n
probabilistic fractals and, 46
of rock vs. human, 37, 508n–509n
of software, 428, 437–438
of “super-critical” machines, 259
complexity theory, 89, 145, 151, 271, 480
computational capacity of the human brain, achieving of, 111–142
bridge to 3–D molecular computing and, 112–115, 526n–528n
estimates of, 70, 122–127, 150, 199, 452, 506n–507n, 527n, 529n–533n
human memory capacity compared with, 126–127
uploading of personality and, 124–125, 199
computational limits, 5, 72, 112, 113, 127–142, 300, 432, 485–486, 533n–536n
Church-Turing thesis and, 453–456, 601n
criticism from Malthus and, 427–428, 434–435
error rate and, 132
intelligence in the cosmos and, 349–351, 590n–591n
memory and computational efficiency and, 136–138
nanocomputing and, 133–135
pico- and femtotechnology and, 138–139, 141, 351, 536n
reversible computing and, 130–135, 428, 534n
Singularity date setting and, 135–136
speed of light and, 139–140
time travel and, 140–141
of universe-scale computer, 364–365, 485–486, 592n
computer-aided design (CAD), 231
computer-assisted instruction (CAI), 336–37
Computer History Museum, 327
computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM), 285
computerized physician order-entry (CPOE) system, 283
computers, computation, 17, 36, 309, 375