himself the new emperor and controlling the major Kanto Provinces. He was killed by the
imperial forces led by Taira no Sadamori and Fujiwara no Hidesato. Almost at the same time,
in western Japan, Fujiwara no Sumitomo virtually controlled the Inland Sea. After Masakado
was killed, the court could focus on suppressing Sumitomo’s rebellion, and Sumitomo was
finally suppressed in 941.
22. They are the Sword ( Kusanagi no tsurugi or Amenomurakumo no tsurugi ), Jewel ( Yasakani no magatama), and Mirror ( Yata no kagami ).
23. A civil war and a conflict between the Minamoto clan (Genji) and the Taira clan (Heike) that lasted from 1180 to 1185. It ended with the fall of the Taira clan and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate by Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192.
24. The stories were written down by Fujiwara no Sanekane (1085–1112), who heard
them from Ōe no Masafusa (1041–1111).
25. Michinaga comments, “Yorichika excels at murdering people” (Fujiwara, Midō kan-
pakuki zen chūshaku Kannin gannen 58). Incidentally, Kiyohara no Munenobu’s younger sister is a famous poet and writer, Sei Shōnagon (966–1025), who served Empress Teishi (977–
1001), Michinaga’s daughter’s rival.
26. There is a lacuna in the original text. A surname is supposed to be there.
27. This translation is mine. For an English translation of the whole story, see Sato, Leg-
ends of the Samurai 66–67.
28. Tsuna is also written as a newcomer in “Shibugaki” (Sour Persimmon, Never Doubt
the Words of the Wise), an instructional text for warriors in the Kamakura period (1185–
1333). As a newcomer to Raikō’s shitennno, Tsuna asks Kintoki how to become mentally
strong (Hanawa, Gunsho Ruijū 27: 157). The date of “Shibugaki” is unknown but is assumed
to be the beginning of the fourteenth century.
29. See Nishio and Kobayashi 409–13; for an English translation, see Sato, Legends of the
Samurai 62–64.
30. See “Kiō,” SNKBZ 45: 291–300; Tyler, Tale of the Heike 211–17, 233–37, especially 235; “The Death of the Prince,” SNKBZ 45: 322–28, especially 325–26.
31. This order seems to have been established by the time of Kokon chomonjū (A Collec-
tion of Ancient and Modern Tales That I’ve Heard, 1254). In the Kidōmaru episode of
Kokon chomonjū, Kintoki is listed immediately after Tsuna, followed by Sadamichi and then Suetake. Raikō sent Kintoki off to his brother’s house with a message asking whether he
could stop by for saké.
32. A copy of the Suntory version called Iwase-bon (Iwase edition) has the same line. See MJMT 2: 392. This Kintoki dance scene is replaced by Tsuna in the Shibukawa version of
the Edo period.
33. According to Fujiwara no Sanesuke (957–1046), Kintoki is ukon’e (Imperial Guard
of the Right). In Nichūreki (Combination of Two History Books, early thirteenth century) Kintoki is also written as Konoe Toneri ( Nichūreki 3: 113).
34. See, for example, the footnotes in SNKBZ 38: 152 and NKBT 26: 55. Modern Japanese translations of this episode spell out his name in their main texts as Sakata no Kintoki.
35. The play was first performed for jōruri in 1712. The first recorded Kabuki perfor-
mance was in 1714. For the text of Komochi Yamauba, see Chikamatsu, Chikamatsu jōruri shū
177–226.
36. It is number 10 of volume 25, SNKBZ 37: 430–33 .
Drunken Demon
59
37. SNKBZ 37: 395–98; Sato, Legends of the Samurai 19–21 for an English translation.
38. It is number 19 of volume 29, SNKBZ 38: 348–50; Sato, Legends of the Samurai 34–36.
39. It is well-known that Emperor Shōmu (701–56) copied the Golden Light Sutra him-
self and distributed it to the provinces. In 741 he called for the establishment of provincial
temples called konkōmyō-shitennō-gokoku no tera (temples for the protection of the country by the four guardian deities of the golden light) throughout the country.
40. See the introduction for a brief explanation of otogizōshi.
41. There is a lacuna in the original text.
42. sandai nikan. The three dynasties are Xia Dynasty (2100–1600 BEC), Shang Dynasty
(1600–1046 BCE), and Zhou Dynasty (1045–256 BCE). The two Hans are Western Han
(206 BCE–9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE).
43. The first emperor of Japan who is, according to Nihon shoki (or Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan, 720 CE) and Kojiki (Ancient Matters, 712), purported to have been enthroned at Kashiwanomiya in Nara prefecture in 660 BCE.
44. sanpō. They are Buddha, sutras, and priesthood.
45. jūzen or ten good acts. It was believed that one became an emperor as a result of
performing ten good acts in his previous lives. Ten good acts are not to (1) kill, (2) steal, (3) commit adultery, (4) lie, (5) use immoral language, (6) slander, (7) equivocate, (8) covet, (9)
give way to anger, and (10) hold false views.
46. Fujiwara no Tadanobu (967–1035), courtier and an able official. As Fujiwara no
Michinaga’s right-hand man, he supported Emperor Ichijō. One of so-called Four Council-
ors of the Ichijō court.
47. Fujiwara no Kintō (966–1041), courtier, an able official, and one of the so-called Four
Councilors of the Ichijō court.
48. Fujiwara no Yukinari (972–1028), courtier, an able official, and one of the so-called
Four Councilors of the Ichijō court. He is known for his great calligraphy.
49. Minamoto no Toshikata (959–1027), courtier and one of the so-called Four Council-
ors of the Ichijō court.
50. Shun and Yao are legendary virtuous emperors of ancient China whose reigns were
regarded as ideal.
51. Emperor Ichijō reigned during the Shōryaku era.
52. tenma. They are demons (the evil king and his relatives) of the sixth heaven in the
realm of desire that try to prevent people from acquiring wisdom and doing good deeds.
53. suikyō. The Shu Ching, or Book of History states that in the era of Busei, or Wu Cheng,
“the sleeves hang low and one folds his arms, the world is well governed in peace.”
54. Abe no Seimei (921?–1005), a famed practitioner of Japanese Onmyōdō (the Way of
yin-yang) during the mid-Heian period.
55. Taira no Muneyori (?–1011), a warrior of the mid-Heian period.
56. Minamoto no Yorinobu (968–1048), a warrior of the mid-Heian period. He was Min-
amoto no Mitsunaka’s third son and Raikō’s half-sibling (younger brother with a different
mother).
57. Taira no Korehira (?–?), a warrior of the mid-Heian period.
58. Fujiwara no Yasumasa (957–1036).
59. This may be Fujiwara no Sanenari (975–1045), the eldest son of Fujiwara no Kinsue
(956–1029), who started a Kan’in line of the northern branch of the Fujiwara family.
60. Present-day northwest Osaka through southeastern Hyōgo prefecture.
61. Present-day northern Kyoto. There seems to be a discrepancy here because Hōshō
was summoned earlier and had declined the offer.
60
Part I: Samurai
62. Hachiman sanjo, which is Iwashimizu Hachimangū. Located in present-day Kyoto, it
enshrines the god of battle and the guardian deity for the Minamoto clan.
63. It enshrines a Shinto deity, Ōmononushi or Ōkuninushi. The shrine is a branch of
Shinto formed within the Tendai school of Buddhism.
64. Kumano sansho. Located in present-day Wakayama prefecture, it is one of the
strongholds of mountain asceticism ( shugendō ).
65. Sum
iyoshi Myōjin, the god of navigation as well as the god of battle.
66. This is Kiyohara no Munenobu (?–1017).
67. The hitatare is a formal upper-body garment.
68. Or Ikuta. Located in present-day Kobe, Hyōgo prefecture.
69. A deity who is said to live on Mt. Taishan in China. In Taoism, he is in charge of life
and death.
70. shikigami or shikijin. An agent—form of magic—that a practitioner of Onmyōdō, or yin-yang master, uses.
71. gohō dōji. A deity to protect Dharma. He has the appearance of a child.
72. The text has “Jikaku daishi” (i.e., Ennin [794–864]), but Yokoyama corrects it as
“Jie daishi” (i.e., Ryōgen [912–85]). I am following Yokoyama’s correction. Jikaku daishi, or
Ennin, is the third Hiei abbot, and the date does not match the story’s setting. Jie daishi, or
Ryōgen, is the eighteenth Hiei abbot. Mt. Hiei refers to the Tendai institution at Mount Hiei.
73. The Fujiwara Regency reached its peak with Fujiwara no Michinaga. He took religious
vows in 1019 and was the father-in-law of three emperors.
74. Mahā-ka-śyapa. One of the ten disciples of Gautama Buddha, famous for ascetic
practices.
75. Fan K’uai (d. 189 BCE), a paragon of strength and courage. He was a retainer of
General Liu Pan, the first emperor of the Han Dynasty in China.
76. Dengyō Daishi (d. 822), founder of the Tendai sect of Buddhism. He founded
Enryakuji on Mt. Hiei in present-day Kyoto.
77. This poem is included in book 20 of Shin kokin wakashū (New Collection of Poems
Ancient and New), the eighth imperial anthology (ca. 1205). The translation is by Honda,
Shin Kokinshū 529. For the Japanese text, see Minemura 557.
78. Ten heavenly maidens who protect the Lotus Sutra.
79. They represent twelve vows of the Medicine Buddha.
80. Bhai�ajyaguru Thathāgata.
81. Ācala Vidyārāja. Fudō myōō is a manifestation of Mahavairocana, the fundamental,
universal Buddha of esoteric Buddhism, and he has a fearsome countenance as he destroys
humans’ delusions and material desires in exchange for the salvation of mankind. Fudō or
Ācala, that is, immovability, refers to his ability to remain unmoved by carnal temptations.
82. An esoteric Buddhist ceremony that focuses on the Healing Buddha and his six mani-
festations. It was performed to pray for health, longevity, and safe delivery of a child.
83. one of the Hie shrines at Mt. Hiei.
84. Goshū. “Go” is an old name of kisasage or Catalpa ovate, and shū is aogiri or firmiana simplex. In the “Falling Leaves” section of volume 1 of Wakan rōeishū (Japanese and Chinese Poems to Sing, ca. 1018), compiled by Fujiwara no Kintō (966–1041), there is a poem by
Minamoto no Shitagō (911–83): “In the shadows of paulownia and catalpa / a sound of rain
swishing emptily / Above the back of the oriole / several bits of red still hanging on” (Rimer
and Chaves 100; Sugano 168).
85. “Pining for ( matsu) a storm” does not make sense here, but it sounds poetic with the
previous word, pine trees, matsu.
Drunken Demon
61
86. The source of this simile appears in “Chu guo” of Gao tang fu, composed by Song Yu, a poet of the Warring period (403–221 BCE) in China.
87. Kirinmugoku and Jakengokudai are perhaps his oni’s names.
88. Present-day Kyūshū.
89. Present-day Fukuoka city.
90. Present-day western and southern part of Fukuoka prefecture.
91. The river runs through present-day osaka.
92. Lu Shang, known as Taigong Wang, is the adviser to King Wen (1152–1056 BCE) of
the Zhou state. When Lu Shang was fishing at the Wei-shui River, waiting for someone to
come and hire him to overthrow the king of Shang, the future king of the Zhou state came
and asked Lu Shang to be his adviser. Lu Shang was eighty years old at that time.
93. To wipe tears.
94. This refers to Japan, compared to India and China.
95. Gotama Buddha (ca. 566–485 BCE), the founder of Buddhism. He was born to a
noble family of the ruling class in Lumbini, present-day Nepal. He abandoned material life
in pursuit of spiritual tranquility. When he was awakened to the truth about life, he became
the Buddha, the enlightened one, and shared his teaching with others.
96. According to the preface of Sangoku sōden onmyō kankatsu hokinaiden kin’u gyokuto-shū
(Transmitted through Three Countries, Collections of the Sun and Moon Yin-Yang Treatise
Held in the Ritual Containers, ca. early fourteenth century), Hakudō became a disciple of
Monju bosatsu (Manjusri). When he became enlightened he received a secret transmission
called Monju sesshū butsurekikyō (Sutra of Buddha Calendar Assembled by Manjusri) from
Manjusri. He brought the sutra to China and named the Hokinaiden kin’u gyokuto shū (Col-
lections of the Sun and Moon Yin-Yang Treatise Held in the Ritual Containers), which
became the sacred scripture for Japanese practitioners of yin and yang. Abe no Seimei is said
to have received the scripture from Hakudō. The date, early fourteenth century, is given by
Murayama, Nihon onmyōdō 323–24. For the text of Hokinaiden, see Nakamura, Nihon onmyōdō-
sho no kenkyū 237–329.
97. The Four Guardian Kings are pre-Buddhist deities that were incorporated into the
Buddhist pantheon to protect Buddhist teachings. Each of them rules one of the cardinal
points and a race of earthly devas.
98. Shakujō, one of the eighteen possessions of a monk.
99. Nachi is famous for its waterfall, which emits mist like clouds.
100. This must be an official who lived in the Ikuno area.
101. Tamura is Sakanoue Tamuramaro (758–811), a famous general of the early Heian
period who, having received an imperial command, conquered the native people of northern
subjugated a number of thieves and bandits. Several legends hold that the military general
Tamura Toshihito (Tamuramaro and Toshihito combined into one person) conquered oni.
102. Uji no hōzō was the treasure house built by Fujiwara no Yorimichi (992–1074), the
eldest son of the regent Michinaga. Uji no Byōdōin buildings, which Uji no hōzō was part
of, were built in 1052, thirty-two years after the death of Raikō.
103. Present-day northwestern Fukuoka prefecture.
104. Present-day Fukushima, Miyagi, Iwate, and Aomori prefectures.
2
A Tale of an Earth Spider ( Tsuchigumo zōshi )
The Emergence of a Shape-Shifting Killer Female Spider
Minamoto no Raikō (oR YoRimitsu, 948–1021) and Watanabe no
Tsuna (953–1025), leader of Raikō’s shitennō (Four Guardian Kings), are
again the conquerors of supernatural creatures, this time a giant earth spi-
der. In Tsuchigumo zōshi (Picture Scroll of an Earth Spider, ca. early four-
teenth century) the two warriors are lured into a dilapidated mansion whose
owner, a beautiful woman, is a giant earth spider in disguise and tries to kill
Raikō. Just like the Shuten Dōji story, Tsuchigumo zōshi extols the prowess
of Minamoto no Raikō and Watanabe no Tsuna by recounting the mur-
der of the monstrous spider. The work is well regarded, primarily because
of its high-quality illustrations in the style of the orthodox yamato-e school
(
classical Japanese) decorative paintings (Nagasaka 18–19; Ueno 111).
Unfortunately, the work tends to be neglected in the field of literature in
spite (or perhaps because) of its entertaining content.
Although spiders appear in ancient Japanese texts, this picture scroll is the
oldest extant work in which a spider is portrayed as a supernatural creature.
During the early modern period, the earth spider was notorious in literature
and theatrical performance as a shape-shifting killer. I speculate that this pic-
ture scroll plays a significant role in the emergence of tsuchigumo as a killer
female shape-shifter, an image perhaps created through its association with
oni. A medieval Noh play titled Tsuchigumo (An Earth Spider; ca. beginning of
the fifteenth century)1 greatly influenced subsequent works in literature and
the performing arts featuring an evil, shape-shifting earth spider. The Nihon
shoki or Nihongi (Chronicles of Japan) and “Tsurugi no maki” (Swords chap-
ter) of Heike monogatari (Tale of the Heike) are the widely recognized sources
for this famous Noh play. Perhaps Tsuchigumo zōshi should also be credited
as a text that helped create an image of a female killer earth spider in Noh’s
Tsuchigumo. Acknowledging Tsuchigumo zōshi as a source for the Noh play leads
62
DOI: 10.7330/9781607324904.c002
A Tale of an Earth Spider
63
to an interpretation of a maiden attendant named Kochō, who briefly appears
at the opening of the play, as a shape-shifting killer spider, and this interpreta-
tion makes the Noh story more logical and coherent, giving depth to the play.
the tsuchiguMO zōshi PiCture sCrOLL
The Tsuchigumo zōshi picture scroll, currently housed in the Tokyo National
Museum, dates back to the first half of the fourteenth century.2 The scroll
consists of nine sections of writing and illustrations. In the process of
transmission from one family to another, the paper has been damaged,
causing lacunae, and the order of the sections has been misarranged.
Fortunately, the order of the story and illustrations was restored to the
original from a copy of Tsuchigumo zōshi dated 1764. The writing on the box
that contained the picture scroll and a certificate written by Tosa Mitsuyoshi