Richmond destroyed by, 31–32, 39, 69
as traitor, 22, 27, 28, 32–33, 34, 38, 69, 218, 266, 277
in Virginia, 38–39, 107, 120, 123, 138, 218, 266, 271
after the war, 266
Asgill, Charles, 243
Audubon, John James, 198
Bankruptcy Act (1800), 275
Barbados:
Great Storm of 1780 on, 17, 18
Rodney in, 144–46
Barras, Jacques-Melchior Saint-Laurent, Comte de:
at Chesapeake Bay, 195, 197, 200
as commander of French naval forces, 111
in defense of Destouches’s action, 72
en route to Chesapeake, 155, 161, 180, 182
move to Boston, 116, 117
in Newport, 111, 114, 117–18
refusal to transport soldiers, 115, 137
unwilling to sail to Chesapeake, 154–55
whereabouts unknown, 164, 194
at Yorktown, 232
Bassett, Burwell, 237
Biron, Marshal de, 129
Blanchard, Claude, 64
Bland, Theodorick, 44
Boade, Captain Brun de, 191
Boston, Siege of, 120, 259
Boston Tea Party, 23
Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de:
in Battle of Chesapeake, 188, 189, 190, 191–94, 266, 267
early career of, 188–89
as first Frenchman to circumnavigate the globe, 189
reputation of, 189, 267
after the war, 266–67
Brandywine, Battle of, 40, 108, 171
Britain:
and Caribbean, see Caribbean
enmity of France and, 8–9, 60–61
and Florida, 10, 132, 133–34, 269
letters intercepted by, 117, 158, 300
peace conference with France rumored, 124
and Seven Years’ War, 8, 10, 60, 68, 87, 163
British army:
Americans’ opposition to, 19, 108, 122, 123
brutality of, 122, 123, 217–18
and Cornwallis, see Cornwallis, Lord Charles
destruction of Cornwallis’s baggage train, 79–80, 87, 93
failed strategies of, 76–77, 108–9
at Guilford Courthouse, 96–102, 99, 107, 122, 228
naval support of, 28, 78, 120, 173, 227
in New York, 106, 112, 251; see also Clinton,Sir Henry
prisoners of war, 230, 233, 251, 275
Queen’s Rangers, 123
in Siege of Yorktown, see Yorktown, Siege of
slaves as servants to, 121–22, 235–36
in the South, 18–20, 107–9
and surrender, 232–33
at Yorktown, see Yorktown, Siege of
British navy:
in Battle of Chesapeake, see Chesapeake, Battle of
off Block Island, 114
in Caribbean, 129–31, 134
in Chesapeake Bay, 27–28, 30–34, 37, 38; see also Cape Henry, Battle of
copper-sheathed ships of, 52, 55, 57, 90–91, 131, 134
difficulties of communication in, 187–88
on Hudson River, 7–8, 12, 155
leaving New York undefended (July–August 1781), 136–37
off Long Island, 37–38, 155
miscommunications in, 146
and naval superiority, 7, 8, 44, 54, 61, 72, 130, 131, 140, 162, 173, 241, 306
in New York for repairs during Siege of Yorktown, 196, 199–201, 224
as overextended, 8–9
preparations of, 48, 59
and Race to Chesapeake, 51–52, 53, 54–55
return to New York after surrender, 231
and Rodney, see Rodney, George
sail to Chesapeake, 163–64, 179, 180
ships of the line, 183, 201–2, 224, 225
signal book of, 139, 259
see also ships, British
Bunker Hill, Battle of, 98, 108, 208, 235, 259
Burgoyne, John, 8, 98, 107, 227, 228
Burr, Aaron, 271
Burrows, Edwin, 259
Camden, Battle of, 19, 108, 259
Canada:
and British Empire, 8, 267
and Seven Years’ War, 8, 189
slaves transported to, 253
Cape Henry, Battle of, 55–72, 163–64
Arbuthnot’s actions in, 57–63, 68, 70–72, 95, 102, 131, 188
Destouches’s actions in, 56–68, 66–67, 70, 187
Destouches’s departure from, 67, 71–72, 73–74, 102, 103, 105, 109, 187, 194
lines of battle in, 55–57, 61–65, 66–67, 188
preparations for, 48, 59
strategies in, 57, 61–68, 66–67, 187
Washington’s views on, 72, 73, 102, 105
wind and weather in, 57–58, 66, 73
Caribbean:
Battle of Saintes in, 240–41, 266, 270, 271, 277
British navy in, 129–31, 134
British possessions in, 9, 10, 240–41
French navy in, 118–19, 125, 131–32, 134–35, 139–41, 142–44, 151, 240
French navy’s surrender to British in, 240–41, 271
French ships en route to, 112–14, 130
French trade in, 9–10, 140, 161, 183
French troops in, 120
hurricanes in, 10–18, 112, 130, 133, 149
map (1780), 11
Saavedra in, see Saavedra de Sangronis, Francisco
Spanish interests in, 9–10
Carleton, Sir Guy, 241–42, 253, 267
Carolinas:
Cornwallis in, 18–20, 25, 26, 39, 76–78, 81–83, 88–102, 107–9, 227
Greene in, 22, 25–26, 38, 39, 77, 79, 80–83, 96, 102, 107, 121, 227, 228, 237
loyalists in, 76, 93, 94–95, 96, 108
Moravian communities in, 88
Morgan in, 26, 39, 77, 80–82, 85–87
O’Hara in, 20, 77, 79–80, 84, 86, 93, 96
rivers as strategic factors in, 79, 80–85, 86–87, 93, 101, 107
Tarleton in, 19, 26, 85, 87, 94, 95
Whigs vs. Tories in, 25–26, 95
Carrington, Edward, 81, 86, 88
Catawba River, 80–81, 82–83, 84, 86, 101
Charleston:
British retreat to, 102, 107
British victory in, 108, 120, 155, 229, 230
Washington’s proposal to focus on, 237
Chastellux, François Jean de Beauvoir, Marquis de, 42, 113–14, 178, 197, 221–22, 244, 256, 267
Chernow, Ron, 244
Chesapeake, Battle of, 183–203, 190, 276
after the battle, 194–96
Bougainville’s performance in, 188, 189, 190, 191–94, 266, 267
British positioning for, 186–88, 190
British retreat to New York, 196, 199
cessation of combat, 193–94
de Grasse’s preliminary position, 183–84, 190
French ligne de vitesse for, 184–86, 187, 188, 189, 190, 240
French reinforcements, 195–96
ideal strategy for, 186
intense fighting in, 191–93
lines of battle in, 191–92, 193
Saavedra’s contribution to success in, 133, 277
shifting winds in, 191–92, 195
signaling systems in, 187, 188, 195
significance of, xiii-xiv
Chesapeake Bay:
Arnold in, 27–28, 30–34, 37, 38, 40, 44–46, 48
Battle of, see Chesapeake, Battle of
Battle of Cape Henry, see Cape Henry, Battle of
British fireships launched in, 200–2
01
de Barras in, 195, 197, 200
de Grasse in, 171–72, 174, 179–82, 183, 196–98, 228, 244
maps (1780–1781), 29, 115
meteor crater in, 27
Middle Ground of, 183–86
naval transport of soldiers on, 49, 171
Race to (1781), 51–52, 53, 54–55, 69, 158–59, 162, 218
routes to (August–September 1781), 180
strategic importance of, 28
Cincinnati, Society of, 272, 277
Cincinnatus, 246
Civil War, U.S., seeds of, 236, 279
Clermont-Crèvecoeur, Comte de, 72, 233
Clinton, George, 255, 258
Clinton, Sir Henry:
and Arbuthnot, 50, 51
and Arnold, 28, 31, 32
Chesapeake area deemed essential by, 28
as commander in chief, 18, 76, 77, 109, 162, 173, 228, 299
and Continental army mutinies, 34
and Cornwallis, 18, 20, 76, 77, 107, 109, 137–39, 162, 170, 172–73, 199–200, 212, 225, 227–28, 230
in New York, 10, 18, 77, 78, 107, 115, 117, 121, 158–59, 161–63, 169, 244, 259
and possible rescue at Yorktown, 214–15, 224–25, 227–28
replacement of, 241
spies of, 113, 259
after the war, 267–68
and Washington’s secret plans, 158–59
Closen, Baron Ludwig von, 47, 54, 172
and de Grasse, 201, 202
on fighting ability of Continental army, 156
on French army at Philadelphia, 168–69
after the war, 268
at Yorktown, 232, 234
Colfax, William, 160
Concord, Battle of, 251, 259
Constitutional Convention, Philadelphia (1787), 265, 278
Continental army:
African American soldiers in, 156, 216–17, 219, 236
cavalry horses of, 90–91
Congress’s failure to support, 23, 34–35, 153, 157, 245–51, 255
crisis of, 245–51
discontent among, 34–37, 168, 174, 243–44, 255
Dutch source of supplies for, 10
and end of war, 251–52
exhaustion of, 106, 109
as family of brothers, 251–52, 257
fighting ability of, 156, 221–22, 234, 252
food and supplies sought by, 91, 168
at Guilford Courthouse, 96–102, 99, 107, 228
march to Yorktown, 152, 153–54, 155, 157–60, 162–78, 166–67, 203
mutinies in, 34–37, 244–51, 255
naval transport of, 49, 115, 137, 147–48, 160, 164–65, 170, 173–74, 182, 198–99
in Newport, 118
in North Carolina, see Carolinas
Sappers and Miners of, 199, 206–8, 219
shabby appearance of, 156, 232, 252
in Siege of Yorktown, see Yorktown, Siege of
states’ failure to support, 120, 139, 148, 153, 243
at Valley Forge, 25, 243, 247, 277
in Virginia, 93–94, 95–96
Washington’s authority challenged in, 245–51
at West Point, 155
at White Plains, 135, 143, 157
Continental Congress:
and army mutinies, 34–35, 245–51, 255
“Continentals” (currency) issued by, 165
and Conway Cabal (1778), 124, 176, 261
failure to govern, 106, 108, 153, 238, 243, 246, 255, 258
failure to support army, 23, 34–35, 153, 157, 245–51, 255
false hopes of, 22–23
and French navy, 74, 75
move to Annapolis, 259–60, 261
move to Princeton, 255, 257
in Philadelphia, 22, 34, 75, 169, 238, 246, 255
Washington’s resignation of commission to, 259, 261–62
Continental navy, ineffectiveness of, 7–8
Conway Cabal (1778), 124, 176, 261
Cornwallis, Lord Charles:
baggage train burned by, 79–80, 87, 93
at Camden, 19, 108
career of, 76, 268
in Carolinas, 18–20, 25, 26, 39, 76–78, 81–83, 88–102, 107–9, 227
and Clinton, 18, 20, 76, 77, 107, 109, 137–39, 162, 170, 172–73, 199–200, 212, 225, 227–28, 230
at Cowan’s Ford, 83–85, 86
and Cowpens, 39, 77–78, 98
fanaticism of, 108–9, 122, 224
and former slaves, 210, 211, 220–21, 234–36
and Greene, 25, 26, 82–83, 85, 86–102, 121, 227
and Guilford Courthouse, 96–103, 122, 228
ignoring chain of command, 18, 77–79, 109, 138
and Lafayette, 121–23, 125, 138–39, 151–52, 178
march to Virginia, 107–9, 110–11, 115
and Morgan, 39, 77, 81–82, 85–87
order to poison wells in Virginia, 218
public persona of, 234
and Race to Dan, 88–94, 89, 96, 111
recruitment efforts of, 94–95, 96
reputation of, 75–76
and surrender, 226–30, 231, 234–35, 241, 277
in Virginia, 120–23, 125, 137–39
after the war, 266, 268
and wife’s death, 75, 78
at Yorktown, 98, 234–35; see also Yorktown; Yorktown, Siege of
Cosby, Phillips, 62–63, 64
Cowan’s Ford, Cornwallis at, 83–85, 86
Cowpens, Battle of, 26, 39, 77–78, 81, 85, 87, 97, 98, 275
Craik, James, 117, 280
Cuba:
funding for French navy from, 144, 150–51, 174–75
Old Bahama Channel of, 144, 149–50, 151
Phoenix wrecked on coast of, 12, 15–17
Spanish bases in, 10, 17, 143, 150
wealth in, 143
Custis, Eleanor, 177
Custis, Jacky, 104, 116, 177, 203, 237–38
Dan River, Race to, 88–94, 89, 96, 111
Davidson, William, 82–83, 84, 86
Davie, William, 91
Declaration of Independence, 252
Destouches, Charles, 38–39, 44, 48–50
in Chesapeake Bay, 69–71
failure to pursue his advantage at Cape Henry, 67, 68, 71–72, 73–74, 102, 103, 105, 109, 187, 194
and plot to capture Arnold, 45–46, 48, 61, 68, 72
and Race to Chesapeake, 54–55, 218
Washington’s frustration with, 73–75, 111–12, 119
Deux-Ponts, Guillaume de, 58–59, 171, 172, 229, 273
Diderot, Denis, 189
Digby, Robert, 140, 155, 182, 199–200, 201–2, 224
Doehla, Johann, 210
Drake, Francis Samuel, 187, 190, 191, 195
Duncan, James, 209
Duportail, Louis Lebègue, 179, 181, 197
Eastern North America, map (1780), 11
Eggleston, Joseph, 95
England, see Britain
Enlightenment, 60, 189
Erie Canal, 278
Estaing, Charles-Hector, Comte d’, 10, 154, 189
Eutaw Springs, Battle of, 228
Ewald, Johann:
and Arnold, 28, 32–33, 69, 70–71
on British army under Cornwallis, 121–22
on destruction of Richmond, 31–32
on French-American enmity, 233
as Hessian commander, 28, 30, 69, 71
and Siege of Yorktown, 211, 220–21, 223–24, 226
after the war, 268–69
Fairfax, Bryan, 177
F
airfax, George, 254
Fairfax, William, 5
Fairfax family, 5
Federalist Papers, The, 271
Ferguson, Patrick, 19–20, 78
Finch, William Clement, 195
Fish, Nicholas, 216
Flohr, George, 234
Florida:
Native Americans in, 133
Spanish vs. British in, 10, 132, 133–34, 140, 269
Folger, Abiah, 52
Fort Griswold, 218, 220
Fort Stanwix, 255
Fort Washington, 24
Framond, Captain, 193
France:
aid requested for colonies from, 35, 111–12, 174
and Caribbean, see Caribbean
confused conduct of war by, 133, 140
enmity of America and, 233–34
enmity of Britain and, 8–9, 60–61
entry into American Revolution, 8, 60, 129, 279
French Revolution, 234, 265, 267, 268, 270, 271, 272–73
peace conference with Britain rumored, 124
Reign of Terror, 273, 276
secret plans of, 45–46, 48, 112–14, 118–19, 244
and Seven Years’ War, 8, 10, 60, 68, 163
and Spain, 132–34, 140–42
Franklin, Benjamin:
on counterfeit money, 12
in Europe, 157
and Gulf Stream map, 52, 54
Frederick the Great, 25
French army:
American need for, 153–54
artillerists in, 221–22
in Chesapeake area, 49, 181
food and supplies for, 157, 158, 168
funding needed for, 139–40, 143–44, 174–75
march to Yorktown, 152, 153–54, 157–60, 162–78, 166–67, 203
naval transport for, 170, 171, 173–74, 181, 182, 198
in Newport, 20–21, 46, 154
in Philadelphia, 168–69
in Siege of Yorktown, see Yorktown, Siege of
splendid appearance of, 168–69, 232
French Expédition Particulière (Special Expedition), 20–21, 43, 125, 154
French navy:
in Battle of Chesapeake, see Chesapeake, Battle of
in Caribbean, 118–19, 125, 131–32, 134–35, 139–41, 142–44, 151, 240
in Chesapeake Bay (de Grasse), 171–72, 179–82, 183, 196, 199–203, 227, 228, 244
in Chesapeake Bay (Destouches), 69–71; see also Cape Henry, Battle of
class warfare in, 189
en route to Caribbean, 112–14, 130
en route to Chesapeake (de Barras), 155, 161, 180, 182
en route to Chesapeake (de Grasse), 180
fresh bread and wine served to, 142–43
funding needed for, 139–40, 143–44, 150–51, 175
impediments to communication with, 8, 114, 146
importance of, to states, 7–8, 10, 44, 47–50, 106