6For modern translations of these, see: Snorri Sturluson, Edda, ed. and trans. A. Faulkes (London: Everyman, 1987) – often known as the Prose Edda – and The Poetic Edda, trans. C. Larrington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
7For an accessible overview, see: M. L. Colish, Medieval Foundations of the Western Intellectual Tradition, 400–1400 (New Haven, CT, and London: Yale University Press, 1997), ch. 8: ‘Varieties of Germanic literature: Old Norse, Old High German, and Old English’.
8See: G. Nordal, Tools of Literacy: The Role of Skaldic Verse in Icelandic Textual Culture of the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 58.
9For an overview of the Norse saga literature, see: M. Clunies Ross, The Cambridge Introduction to the Old Norse-Icelandic Saga (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010).
10J. Jesch, ‘The Norse gods in England and the Isle of Man’, in D. Anlezark (ed.), Myths, Legends, and Heroes: Essays on Old Norse and Old English Literature in Honour of John McKinnell (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011), pp. 18–19.
11M. Osborn, ‘The ravens on the Lejre Throne’, in M. D. J. Bintley and T. J. T. Williams (eds), Representing Beasts in Early Medieval England and Scandinavia (Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer, 2015), p. 104; A. Andrén, K. Jennbert and C. Raudvere (eds), Old Norse Religion in Long-term Perspectives: Origins, Changes, and Interactions: An International Conference in Lund, Sweden, June 3–7, 2004 (Lund: Nordic Academic Press, 2006), p. 128.
12Feminae: Medieval Women and Gender Index, https://inpress.lib.uiowa.edu/feminae/DetailsPage.aspx?Feminae_ID=31944 (accessed 17 March 2017).
13L. Hedeager, Iron Age Myth and Materiality: An Archaeology of Scandinavia AD 400–1000 (Abingdon: Routledge, 2011), Figure 4.21, p. 76.
14P. Parker, The Northmen’s Fury: A History of the Viking World (London: Vintage, 2015), p. 130.
15See: J. D. Richards, ‘The Scandinavian presence’, in J. Hunter and I. Ralston (eds), The Archaeology of Britain: An Introduction from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Industrial Revolution (London: Routledge, 1999), p. 200; J. Jesch, ‘Speaking like a Viking: Language and cultural interaction in the Irish Sea region’, in S. E. Harding, D. Griffiths and E. Royles (eds), In Search of Vikings: Interdisciplinary Approaches to the Scandinavian Heritage of North-west England (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2015), p. 58.
16Anglo-Saxon Chronicle annal for 878, D. Whitelock (ed.), English Historical Documents, Volume I, c.500–1042 (London: Eyre Methuen, 1979), p. 195. Referring to this event, the later Annals of St Neots (early twelfth century) records the tradition that the banner fluttered prior to a victory but hung down before a defeat.
Chapter 2: The impact of Christianity on Norse mythology
17P. Meulengracht Sørensen, ‘Religions old and new’, in P. Sawyer (ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of the Vikings (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p. 206.
18See: J. Lindow, Handbook of Norse Mythology (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC Clio, 2001), p. 10.
19A. Faulkes, ‘Pagan sympathy: Attitudes to heathendom in the Prologue to Snorra Edda’, in R. J. Glendinning and H. Bessason (eds), Edda: A Collection of Essays (Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba Press, 2014), p. 285.
20In the same way, many experts have argued that the Norse mythological scenes found on stone crosses in Britain represent the use of Norse pagan motifs to communicate a Christian message. See: J. Jesch, ‘The Norse gods in England and the Isle of Man’, in D. Anlezark (ed.), Myths, Legends, and Heroes: Essays on Old Norse and Old English Literature in Honour of John McKinnell (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011), p. 12.
21He states: ‘Now there shall be told more of the underlying stories from which those kennings just listed have originated’, M. Clunies Ross, ‘Quellen zur germanischen Religionsgeschichte’, in H. Beck, D. Ellmers and K. Schier (eds), Germanische Religionsgeschichte (Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1992), p. 647.
22It has been argued that the Icelandic material ‘may give a picture of pagan mythology that is rather too systematic and learned’. A. Mills, Mythology (Cape Town: Struik Publishers, 2006), p. 233.
23Adam of Bremen, History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen, trans. F. J. Tschan (New York: Columbia University Press, 2002), Bk IV, p. 207.
24Tacitus, Germania, trans. M. Hutton and W. Peterson, rev. R. M. Ogilvie, E. H. Warmington and M. Winterbottom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1914), p. 144.
25See: A. A. Somerville and R. A. McDonald, The Vikings and Their Age (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2013), ch. 2: ‘Society and religion in the Viking Age: Conversion’.
Select Bibliography
The selection of myths and legends freely retold in this book can also be found, academically translated from Old Norse in the context of other traditions, stories and accounts, in these translations.
The Poetic Edda, trans. C. Larrington (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki, trans. J. L. Byock (London: Penguin, 1998).
The Saga of the Volsungs, trans. J. L. Byock (London: Penguin, 1999).
Sturluson, Snorri, Edda, ed. and trans. A. Faulkes (London: Everyman, 1987). Often known as the Prose Edda.
Sturluson, Snorri, Heimskringla: History of the Kings of Norway, trans. L. M. Hollander (Austin TX: University of Texas Press, 2007).
‘The Vinland Sagas’, trans. K. Kunz, in J. Smiley et al., The Sagas of Icelanders (London: Penguin, 2000).
Index
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
Adam of Bremen, 3, 14
Adils, King, 112–12, 235–9, 243–5
Aegir, 100, 139–41, 152
Æsir (gods)
and Baldr’s death, 71–9
deaths at Ragnarok, 170–1
galdrasmithir (‘magic makers’), 211
and loss of Idunn, 81–4
occupy Scandinavia, 290–10
ordering of, 35–8
and origins of poetry, 85–8
relations with giants, 89–90, 167
set up home, 164
trick builder, 57–60
visit Aegir, 100
war with Vanir, 81, 85, 166–7, 206, 208–9
Agnar (son of King Hraudung), 124–5
Agnar (son of Princess Ogn), 234–5
Agnar-the-younger, 123, 126, 129
Alf, King, 192
Alvig the Wise, 203
Andvari, 105–6, 109, 194
Angantyr, 221
Angantyr (junior), 223–4
Angantyr II, King, 224–7
Anglo-Saxon beliefs, 9
Ardre VIII stone, 56
Arngrim, 220–1
Asaland, 206–9
Asvid, 118
Asyniur (goddesses), 49–52
Atli Budlason, King (Attila the Hun), 108, 110
Audhumla (the ancient cow), 163
Augustus, Emperor, 111
Aun, King, 215–16
Aurvandil the Bold, 94
Baldr, 33, 36, 38, 49, 84, 127, 148–9, 168, 171–2, 178
his death, 69–79, 149, 169
Baldr’s Dream, 7
Barnstock (tree), 184
Baugi, 87
Beowulf, 229
Bera, 239–41
Beyla, 146, 151
Bifrost (bridge), 19, 28, 30, 33, 54, 128, 175
Bjarkamál, 228
Bjarney island, 257
Bjarni Herjolfsson, 249–52
Bjorn, 239–40
Blainn, 99
Bodvar Bjarki, 229–30, 241–7
Bolthor, 117
Bolverk, 116
Book of Genesis, 12
Borghild, 189, 191
Bragi, 37, 128, 146–8
Brimir, see Ymir
Brisingamen (Brising’s necklace), 50, 156–7
Brynhild, 108–10
Bur, sons of, 163
Byggvir, 146, 150
Christianity, and Norse mythology, 11–16, 20–1, 55, 162, 230
Codex Regius, 6–7, 11, 162
Codex Trajectinus, 6
Codex Upsaliensis, 6
Codex Wormianus, 6, 29–30
Dain, 34, 118, 201, 219
Dainsleif (King Hogni’s sword), 201
Deor, 199
Domaldi, King of the Svear, 214–15
Draupnir (ring), 102
Durin, 165, 219–20
Dvalin, 34, 118, 165, 218–20
dwarfs, 27, 32, 45, 50, 55, 60, 74, 218
origins of, 99, 164–5
and origins of poetry, 85–6
plural of, 99
earthquakes, 152
effeminacy, 131
Egill, 141–2
Egill’s Saga, 15
Eikthyrnir (deer), 127
Eir, 51
Eitri, 101–2
Eldir, 146–7
Elk-Frodi, 240–2, 247
Emund, King of Novgorod, 203
Eric the Red, 250–2, 254–5, 257
Eric the Red’s Saga, 248–9
euhemerism, 13, 206
Eulogy on the House, 48
Eyfura, Princess, 218, 221
Eystein Meyla, King of Norway, 205
Fafnir, 98–9, 104, 106–10, 182, 193–8, 203
fates, three, 165–6
Fenrir (wolf), 21, 37, 53, 90, 128, 144, 146–7, 149–51, 169
binding of, 44–7, 54
and Ragnarok, 171, 175–8
First Grammatical Treatise, 6
flyting, 130–1
fornyrðislag (poetic metre), 162
Freydis Ericsdottir, 250, 257, 259, 261–2
Freyia, 36–7, 49–50, 74, 83, 100, 127, 206, 214
and builder’s bargain, 57–9
equated with Gullveig, 166
given to giants, 167
and Hrungir’s visit to Valhalla, 91–2
and Loki’s insults, 146, 149
and recovery of Idunn, 83
and seithr (magic), 209, 212
Thor impersonates to retrieve hammer, 50, 153–60
Freyr, 36–7, 45, 48, 74, 100, 127, 171, 176, 206–10
establishes Swedish royal line, 54, 207, 213–14
and Gerd, 53–4
known as Yngvi, 213–14
and Loki’s insults, 146, 149–50
rules over the Svear, 213–14
his ship Skidbladnir, 60, 101, 103, 128
worshipped in Uppsala, 15
Frigg, 27, 35, 49, 52, 100, 168, 171, 184, 208
and Baldr’s death, 71–4
falcon attribute, 95
and Loki’s insults, 146, 148–9
rivalry with Odin, 122, 125–7
her treasure-casket, 51
Frodi, King of Denmark, 111–12, 218, 221
Frodi (brother of Halfdan), 230–2
Fulla, 51
Garðaríki (Kiev-Rus), 206, 209
Garm (dog), 128, 169–71, 176
Geats, the, 185, 225–6, 229
Gefion, 51, 148
Geirrod, King, 95–7, 115, 122–6, 129
Gellir, 230
Gerd, 48, 53–4
Gesta Danorum, 199, 218
Gialp, 96
giants (jötnar), 89–90, 98–9
Gilling, 85–6
Gimle, palace of, 34–5
Giuki, King, 108
Gizur Grytingalidi, King, 225–7
Gna, 52
goats, Thor’s, 35, 60–1, 67, 139, 142, 158
gold, 98–113
‘Aegir’s fire’, 100
Fafnir’s hoard, 197–8
‘Fafnir’s home’, 106–8
‘Frodi’s flour’, 111–12
‘Glasir’s leaves’, 101
guarded by dragons, 106
‘Kraki’s seed’, 112–13
‘Niflung’s treasure’, 108–11
‘otter-payment’, 104–6
‘Sif’s hair’, 101
‘speech of giants’, 85
Golden Hilt (King Hrolf’s sword), 243
Gondul, 168
Gosforth (Cumbria), 9
Gothorm, 109
Goths and the Huns, battle of the, 225–7
Goti, King of Gotland, 204
Gram (Sigurd’s sword), 195–6
Grani (Sigurd’s horse), 193
Granmar, 190
Great Witchingham (Norfolk), 131
Greenland, settlement of, 250–1
Grid, 96–7
Grithir, 195
Groa, 94
Gudmund, King of Glaesisvellir, 223
Gudrid Thorbjornsdottir, 249–51, 254–7, 259–61
Gudrun, 108, 110–11
Gullfaxi (Hrungir’s horse), 91, 93–4
Gunn, 168
Gunnar, 108–10
Gunnlod, 86–7, 116
Gylfi, King (‘The Wanderer’), 21–6, 28, 31, 210
Habrok (hawk), 128
Haenir, 80–1, 104, 165, 172, 194, 206, 208
Haki and Hekja, 257
Halfdan the Old, 200, 202–3
Halfdan (brother of Frodi), 230–1
Halton (Lancashire), 9
Harald Fairhair, King of Norway, 207
Hati Hrodvitnisson (wolf), 28, 174, 174
Hauksbok, 162
Hedin Hiarrandason King, 200–1
Heid (Gullveig), 166
Heidrek, 223–6
Heidrun (goat), 127
Heimdall (Rig), 29–30, 37–40, 50, 74, 127, 150, 157, 167, 170, 176–7
Heimskringla, 5, 48, 205
Hel (child of Loki), 42–4
Helgi (son of Halfdan), 231–6, 243
Helgi (son of Sigmund), 189–90
Helgi and Finnbogi, 261–2
Helgi Hundingsbane, 49
Helluland, 249, 252–3, 257
Hercules, 15
Herjolf, 250
Hermod the Bold, 73–5
Hervarar Saga, 217
Hervor, 223–4, 226
Hiadnings’ battle, 199, 202
Hialprek, King, 106
Hiarrand, 200
Hild, 108, 168, 199–202
Hjalmar, 221–3
Hjalti (Hott), 229, 242–4, 246–7
Hjordis, 191–2
Hjorvard, King of Öland, 238, 246–7
Hjorvard (son of Agantyr), 221–2
Hlin, 52
Hljod, 184
Hlod, 224–6
Hnoss, 49–50
Hod, 37–8, 69–70, 72, 79, 168, 172, 178
Hodbrodd, King, 190
Hofund, 223
Hogni, King, 200–1
Hogni (brother of Gudrun), 108–10
Hønen Runestone, 4
Hott, see Hjalti
Hrafnkell’s Saga, 15
Hraudung, King, 123–4
Hreidmar, 104–6, 194
Hrimnir, 184
Hring, King, 239–41
Hringhorni (ship), 73
Hroar, 231–2, 234
Hrod, 142
Hrok, 234
Hrolf Kraki, King, 98, 112–13, 228–30, 235–6, 238–9, 242–7
Hrungir, 90–3
Hrym, 170, 175–6
Hugin and Munin (Odin’s ravens), 8, 53, 74, 127, 211
Humli, King of the Huns, 225–7
Huns, kingdom of the, 183–4
Hvit, Queen, 239–41
Hymir, 56, 67–8, 139, 141–5, 149
Hyrrokin, 73–4
Iarnsaxa, 94
Idunn, 37, 80–3, 100, 146, 148, 150
Ingeborg, Princess, 221–3
Ionakr, King, 110
Iord, 52
Iormunrekk the Great, King, 111
Jormungand, see Midgard serpent
kennings, 5–6, 12–14, 16, 19, 42, 69, 80–1
Kensington Runestone, 4
Kirk Andreas (Isle of Man), 9
Kvasir, 76, 85–6
Landnámabók (Book of Settlements), 230
L’A
nse aux Meadows, 3–4, 249
Leif Ericsson, 249–54, 262
Leifthrasir, 178
Life, 178
List of Rig, The, 6, 29
ljodahattr (song-metre), 114–15
Lodur, 165
Lofn, 51
Loki, 41–3
and Baldr’s death, 69–70, 75–6, 149, 169
captured by Geirrod, 95–7
his children, 43–4, 56
contrasted with Thor, 42
and Freyia, 50–1
helps retrieve Thor’s hammer, 153–60
insults Æsir, 140, 146–52
journeys with Thor, 55–6, 60–6
kills Aegir’s slave, 100
and ‘otter-payment’, 104–6, 194
his punishment, 76–8, 152, 169
and Ragnarok, 176–7
and recovery of Idunn, 81–4
and ‘Sif’s hair’, 101–3
tricks builder, 58–60
Lyngvi, King, 191–2, 195–6
Magni, 93–4, 133, 138, 178
Markland, 250, 252–3, 257, 260
Mars (Roman god), 15
Megingjorth (Thor’s magical belt), 62
Mercury (Roman god), 15
metalworking, 31
Midgard serpent (Jormungand), 9, 42–4, 56
disguised as cat, 65–6
and Ragnarok, 170–2, 175–6, 178
and Thor’s fishing expedition, 67–8
Mim, beheaded by Vanir, 170
Mimir, 32, 168, 172, 206, 208, 211
Mimir’s Well, 32, 168, 176
Miollnir (Thor’s hammer), 36, 55, 59, 61–3, 74, 93, 95, 145, 151
retrieved, 153–60
mistletoe, 72
Modgud, 74–7
Modi, 178
Mokkurkalfi (giant of clay), 92–3
Motsognir, 165, 219
Naglfar (ship), 170, 175
Nann Nepsdaughter, 74
Narfi, 43, 77, 152
Nidhogg (dragon), 32–4, 128, 169, 172, 177
Niflungs, the, 108–11
Niord, 36, 45, 84, 127, 146, 149, 158, 183, 206, 209, 213
Nordri, King of Northumbria, 232, 234
norns, 33, 189, 197
Norse (the term), 1
nuthatches, speech of, 197
Od, 49–50, 59, 91, 167
Odin
and Baldr’s death, 73–4, 78–9
battle of insults with Thor, 130–8
chief among Æsir, 35
and children of Loki, 43–4
and Christianity, 13, 20–1
death at Ragnarok, 176–7, 212–13
and Fenrir the wolf, 9, 42, 44–5, 47, 54, 171, 176–7
gives name to Wednesday, 9
and governance of Asgard, 31
and Hrungir’s horse, 93–4
and Hrungir’s visit to Valhalla, 90–2