cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR), (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)n
cosmic rays, (i)
cosmic strings. See string theory
cosmological constant, (i), (ii). See also dark energy
Cowan, Clyde, (i)
Cryogenic Dark Matter Search (CDMS), (i). See also dark matter
dark energy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.)
dark matter, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)n
Davies, Paul, (i)
Davis, Raymond, (i)
Dawn spacecraft, (i)(fig.), (ii)
de Sitter, Willem, (i), (ii)
de Vaucouleurs, Gérard, (i), (ii)
Dicke, Robert H., (i), (ii)(fig.)
distance, calculating, (i). See also Cepheid variable stars
double stars, (i)
Drago, Marco, (i)
Dressler, Alan, (i)
Drever, Ronald, (i). See also LIGO
dwarf planets, (i), (ii). See also Ceres; Pluto
Earth, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv)(table), (v), (vi), (vii). See also solar system
Eddington, Arthur S.: on the Big Bang, (i); gravitational deflection of light reported, (i); and gravitational lensing, (i), (ii); on Lemaître, (i); on neutron stars, (i); on Sirius B, (i); and stellar hydrogen, (i), (ii)
Eichhorn, Heinrich, (i)
Einstein, Albert, (i); and black holes, (i), (ii); on Bohr’s discovery, (i); cosmological constant, (i), (ii) (see also dark energy); and the expanding universe, (i), (ii); general theory of relativity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (see also Big Bang; general theory of relativity); and gravitational lensing, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and gravitational waves, (i); on indeterminacy, (i); at Mount Wilson, (i), (ii)(fig.); special theory of relativity, (i), (ii); static universe model, (i), (ii), (iii); and time, (i)
Eisberg, Joann, (i)
electromagnetism, (i), (ii)
electrons: and atomic spectra, (i), (ii); atoms formed, (i); and cosmic rays, (i); and dwarf or neutron stars, (i), (ii), (iii); mass, (i); radio background generated, (i); smashing, (i)
The Elegant Universe (Greene), (i)
elements, formation of, (i), (ii)
Ellis, Charles, (i)
empty universe model, (i)
energy: conservation of, (i); and mass, (i)
Epicurus, (i)
Eris, (i)
Ewing, Ann, (i)
exoplanets (extrasolar planets), (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv), (v)
extraterrestrials, (i), (ii), (iii)
Faber, Sandra, (i)
Fabri, Honoré, (i)
Fermi, Enrico, (i)
Feynman, Richard, (i), (ii)
Flammarion, Camille, (i)
Ford, W. Kent, (i)
Fowler, Ralph, (i), (ii)
Fowler, William, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.)
Frail, Dale, (i)
Freedman, Wendy, (i)
Friedmann, Aleksandr, (i)
galaxies: brightness, (i), (ii); Cheshire Cat formation, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii); clusters, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v), (vi), (vii)(fig.); discovery, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii); encounters between, (i), (ii); evolution, (i); mass, (i) (see also dark matter); nuclei (supermassive black holes), (i), (ii); rotation, (i); Shapley-Ames catalog, (i); Sombrero galaxy (NGC 4594), (i)(fig.); spiral structure, (i), (ii)(fig.); superclusters, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.); velocity and distance, (i), (ii), (iii) (see also universe: expansion). See also black holes; Milky Way galaxy; quasars; stars
Galileo Galilei, (i), (ii), (iii)
gamma rays, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Gamow, George, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Gates, Evalyn, (i)
Gatewood, George, (i)
Gauss, Carl Friedrich, (i)
Gell-Mann, Murray, (i), (ii)
general theory of relativity, (i), (ii), (iii); and black holes, (i) (see also black holes); and quantum mechanics, (i), (ii), (iii) (see also theory of everything); and time, (i), (ii). See also Big Bang; gravity; space-time; universe: expansion
Gingerich, Owen, (i)
Godart, Odon, (i)
Gold, Thomas, (i)
gravity (gravitation): and dark matter, (i), (ii) (see also dark matter); and Einstein’s cosmological constant, (i), (ii) (see also dark energy); as force, (i), (ii), (iii); gravitational waves, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv); and inflation, (i); light deflection and gravitational lensing, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); Newton’s law, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); quantum gravity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and quantum mechanics, (i); space-time curved by, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi). See also black holes
Greene, Brian, (i)
Greenstein, Jesse, (i), (ii)
Gregory, David, (i)
Guth, Alan, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Halley, Edmond, (i)
Halley’s Comet, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)
Haramundanis, Katherine, (i)
Hartle, James, (i), (ii)
Hawking, Stephen, (i), (ii), (iii)
Heisenberg, Werner, (i)
helium, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.)
Herman, Robert, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Herschel, William, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Hertzsprung, Ejnar, (i), (ii)
Hess, Victor Francis, (i)(fig.), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Hewish, Antony, (i), (ii)
Hey, James S., (i)
Holmberg, Erik, (i)
Hooker telescope (100-inch), (i), (ii), (iii)
Hoskin, Michael, (i)
Hoyle, Fred, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv)
Hubble, Edwin Powell: Cepheid variables identified, (i), (ii); and Einstein, (i), (ii)(fig.); and expanding universe theory, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); and galaxy clusters, (i), (ii); galaxy velocity-distance link recognized, (i), (ii); other galaxies discovered, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); on Payne, (i)
Hubble constant, (i), (ii)
Hubble Space Telescope, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)(fig.), (iv)(fig.), (v)
Huggins, William, (i), (ii)
Humason, Milton, (i), (ii)
Huygens, Christiaan, (i)
hydrogen, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)(fig.), (vi), (vii)
hydrogen peroxide, (i)
IceCube Neutrino Observatory, (i), (ii)(fig.)
inflation, (i)
infrared telescopes, (i), (ii), (iii)
International Astronomical Union, (i), (ii), (iii)
interstellar dust, (i)
ionized particles, detection of, (i). See also cosmic rays
Isham, Christopher, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Jansky, Karl, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Jewitt, David C., (i)
Jupiter, (i), (ii)(table), (iii), (iv), (v)
Kajita, Takaaki, (i)
Kaluza, Theodor, (i)
Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA), (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)
Keeler, James E., (i)
Kepler, Johannes, (i), (ii)
Kepler space telescope, (i)
Kidwell, Peggy Aldrich, (i)
Kirchoff, Gustav, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Kitt Peak National Observatory, (i)
KK particles, (i)
Klein, Oskar, (i)
Kuchař;, Karel, (i), (ii)
Kuiper, Gerard P., (i)
Kuiper belt, (i)
Landau, Lev, (i)
Lane, K. Maria, (i)
Laniakea Supercluster, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.)
Laplace, Pierre-Simon, marquis de, (i), (ii)
Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO), (i), (ii)(fig.)
Leavitt, Henrietta Swan, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Lemaître, Georges, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii). See also Big Bang
Lick Observatory, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
light: bent by gravity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); and black holes, (i); planets’ effects on stars’ light, (i); properties, (i); speed, (i); velocity, (i). See also spectroscopy
LIGO, (i), (ii)(fig
.)
Linde, Andrei D., (i)
Lo, Fred K. Y., (i)
Local Group, (i), (ii)
Locher, Johann, (i)
Lowell, Percival, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv), (v)
Lowell Observatory, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi). See also Slipher, Vesto Melvin
Luu, Jane X., (i)
Magellanic Clouds, Large and Small, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv). See also Cepheid variable stars
Mandl, Rudi W., (i)
Marcy, Geoffrey, (i)
Mars, (i), (ii)(table), (iii), (iv), (v)(fig.), (vi)
mass: and energy, (i); of galaxies, (i) (see also dark matter); of particles, (i). See also gravity
matter clocks, (i)
Mavalvala, Nergis, (i)
Maxwell, James Clerk, (i), (ii), (iii)
Mayor, Michel, (i)
McDonald, Arthur, (i)
McHugh, Martin P., (i)
membranes. See branes
Messier, Charles, (i)
Michell, John, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)
microwaves. See cosmic microwave background radiation
Milky Way galaxy: average motion of stars, (i); cosmic molecules in, (i); Galileo’s observations, (i); location, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v); mapping, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.); our solar system’s location in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v); radio waves emitted, (i); rotation, (i); size, (i), (ii); spiral structure, (i), (ii)(fig.); supergiant stars, (i); supermassive black hole in, (i); visible in night sky, (i)(fig.), (ii). See also galaxies; stars; and specific stars and types of bodies
Miller, John, (i)
Miller, W. Allen, (i)
Millikan, Robert A., (i)
Milne, Edward, (i)
Minkowski, Hermann, (i)
molecules, cosmic, (i)
monopoles, (i)
Moon, (i)
Morgan, William W., (i)
motion: early planetary motion theories, (i); Newton’s laws, (i), (ii), (iii)
Mount Wilson Observatory, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)(fig.), (ix). See also Hubble, Edwin Powell
multiverse, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v). See also string theory
muons, (i), (ii)
NASA: Apollo 11 mission, (i); Beyond Einstein plan, (i); Chandra X-ray Observatory, (i), (ii)(fig.); Dawn spacecraft, (i)(fig.), (ii); Goddard Institute, (i); Mars missions, (i); Spitzer Space Telescope, (i), (ii); Stardust mission, (i). See also Hubble Space Telescope
Nassau, Jason, (i)
National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), (i). See also Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array
National Science Foundation (NSF), (i)
nebulae, (i); identified as galaxies, (i), (ii) (see also galaxies)
Neptune, (i), (ii)
neutrinos, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.)
neutrons, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
neutron stars, (i); collision of, (i), (ii), (iii); discovery/detection, (i); formation, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)n; pulsars, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); size and mass, (i), (ii), (iii). See also pulsars
Newton, Sir Isaac, (i); law of gravity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); laws of motion, (i), (ii), (iii); on the motion of comets, (i); space inert for, (i); and time, (i), (ii)
novae, (i)
Oemler, Augustus, Jr., (i)
Olbers, Heinrich, (i)
Oppenheimer, J. Robert, (i), (ii)
Osterbrock, Donald, (i)
“Our Universe: The Known and the Unknown” (Wheeler), (i)
oxygen, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)(fig.)
Palitzsch, Johan Georg, (i)
Pallas, (i)
Palomar Observatory, (i), (ii), (iii)
particle physics, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi). See also atomic physics; cosmic rays; quantum mechanics; and specific particles
Pauli, Wolfgang, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Payne, Cecilia Helena, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Penzias, Arno, (i), (ii), (iii)
photons, (i), (ii). See also light
Piazzi, Giuseppe, (i)
Pickering, Edward C., (i), (ii), (iii)
Planck length, (i), (ii)
Planck satellite, (i)
planets, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v). See also exoplanets; solar system
Pluto, (i)
Principia (Newton), (i), (ii)
Procyon, (i)
protons, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
pulsars, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v). See also neutron stars
quantum cosmology, (i). See also quantum mechanics: and time
quantum fluctuations, (i)(fig.), (ii)
quantum gravity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
quantum mechanics, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); and time, (i), (ii). See also particle physics
quarks, (i)
quasars, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)(fig.), (viii)
Queloz, Didier, (i)
radio astronomy, (i), (ii); radio telescopes, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)(fig.), (vii)(fig.), (viii)
Randall, Lisa, (i), (ii)(fig.)
redshift and blueshift, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Reines, Frederick, (i)
relativity. See general theory of relativity; special theory of relativity
Riess, Adam, (i)
rings, planetary, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Roland, Henry A., (i)
Rosenfeld, Albert, (i)
Rovelli, Carlo, (i), (ii)
Royal Astronomical Society, (i), (ii), (iii)
Royal Society, (i), (ii), (iii)
Rubin, Vera, (i), (ii)(fig.)
Russell, Henry Norris, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Rutherford, Ernest, (i), (ii)
Ryle, Martin, (i)
Sagan, Carl, (i), (ii)
Saha, Meghnad, (i)
Sandage, Allan, (i)
Sargent, Anneila, (i)
Saturn, (i), (ii)(table), (iii)
Schiaparelli, Giovanni, (i)
Schmidt, Maarten, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.)
Schrödinger, Erwin, wave equation of, (i), (ii)
Secchi, Angelo, (i)
Shapley, Harlow, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
Sharpless, Stewart, (i)
singularity, (i), (ii). See also Big Bang
Sirius and Sirius B, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv)
Sitwell, Edith, (i)
Slipher, Vesto Melvin, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)
Smolin, Lee, (i)
Snyder, Hartland, (i)
solar system: composition, (i); heliocentric model, (i); interstellar dust, (i); location in Milky Way, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v); orbital speeds, (i); planetary motion theories, (i) (see also gravity). See also asteroids; comets; Kuiper belt; planets; Sun; and specific planets
Sombrero galaxy (NGC 4594), (i)
space telescopes, (i), (ii). See also Hubble Space Telescope
space-time, (i); and dark energy, (i); expansion, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); gravitational waves, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv); gravity and curvature of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii); Minkowski’s notion of, (i); quantum theory and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); steady-state model, (i), (ii); and superstrings, (i), (ii) (see also string theory); time’s status in, (i) (see also time). See also Big Bang; general theory of relativity; universe
special theory of relativity, (i), (ii). See also general theory of relativity
spectroscopy, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v); nebulae identified as galaxies through, (i); Payne’s work on stellar composition, (i), (ii); redshift and blueshift, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); Slipher’s work, (i); uniqueness of spectra, (i); unusual quasar spectra, (i);
Spitzer Space Telescope, (i), (ii)
Starbinsky, Alexander, (i)
Stardust spacecraft, (i)
stars: cataloging, (i); Cepheid variables, (i), (ii); composition, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)(fig.); double stars, (i); planetary systems (see exoplanets; planets; solar system); pulsars, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); stellar spectra, (i), (ii) (see also
spectroscopy); stellar wobble, (i); structure, fusion, and element formation, (i), (ii); supernovae, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)n; temperature, (i); types (sizes), (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v)n (see also neutron stars). See also black holes; Sun
string theory, (i), (ii). See also multiverse
Strozzi, Giulio, (i)
Struve, Otto, (i)
Sun: Earth’s rotation around, (i), (ii); elemental composition, (i), (ii); gravitational lensing, (i); life cycle, (i); neutrinos generated, (i); relationship to Milky Way, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.), (v). See also solar system
superclusters, (i), (ii)(fig.)
supernovae, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)n. See also neutron stars
superstrings. See string theory
Taylor, John, (i)
Telescope Array (Utah), (i), (ii)(fig.)
telescopes, (i); Burbidge on, (i); gravity-wave telescopes, (i); improvements in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); infrared telescopes, (i), (ii); radio telescopes, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi)(fig.), (vii)(fig.), (viii); space telescopes, (i), (ii), (iii) (see also Hubble Space Telescope); TRAPPIST telescope, (i); women denied access, (i). See also specific observatories
Texas Symposium for Relativistic Astrophysics (1963), (i)
theory of everything, (i), (ii), (iii)
Thompson, Gordon B., (i)
Thorne, Kip S., (i), (ii), (iii). See also LIGO
time, (i); as fundamental problem in physics, (i); Newtonian notion, (i), (ii); quantum mechanics and, (i), (ii); relativity and, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); as scientific tool, (i)
Tinsley, Beatrice, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)
Titius, Johann Daniel, (i)
Tombaugh, Clyde W., (i)
Townes, Charles H., (i)
TRAnsiting Planets and PlanetesImals Small Telescope network, (i)
TRAPPIST-1 planetary system, (i), (ii)(fig.), (iii)(fig.)
Tully, R. Brent, (i)
Two on a Tower (Hardy), (i)
Tye, Henry, (i)
uncertainty principle, (i)
underground astronomy, (i)
unified field theory. See theory of everything
universe: age, (i), (ii)n; birth and evolution, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v) (see also Big Bang); clockwork theory, (i); composition, (i), (ii); cosmic matter, (i), (ii); cosmic microwave background, (i); cosmological models, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) (see also Big Bang); dark energy, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)(fig.); dark matter, (i), (ii), (iii)(fig.), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)n; earliest pictures, (i); expansion, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix) (see also Lemaître, Georges); future, (i); mapping, (i); temperature, (i), (ii); uniformity, (i); vastness, (i). See also galaxies; multiverse; space-time; stars; and various types of celestial bodies