Crook and, 123, 124
death of, 130
as last desert Apache leader, 127, 132
surrender of, 5, 124, 129, 131
as Western icon, 41, 44, 129
Ghost Dance movement, 5, 30, 131, 134, 135–37, 151
beliefs with elements similar to, 136, 137, 144
Sitting Bull and, 143–44, 145–47, 158
whites’ fear of, 158
after Wounded Knee, 157–58
Ghost Dance Religion and the Great Sioux Outbreak of 1890, The (Mooney), 135, 154
Glorieta Pass, Battle of, 98
gold rushes:
in Black Hills, 141
in California, 48, 56
in Colorado, 96–97
Grant, Ulysses S., 22, 94, 98
Camp Grant Massacre condemned by, 21, 121
Little Bighorn and, 107
Sand Creek Massacre and, 21, 107
Grattan, John L., 94
Great Sioux Reservation, 142
Great Sioux Uprising (1862), 6, 95
Grinell, George Bird, 104
Grouard, Frank, 133
Haight, Isaac, 70, 71, 72
Hamlin, Jacob, 72, 79
Handsome Lake, 136
Harney, William, 95
Haslem, James, 70–71, 72
Hay-o-wei (Yellow Hair), 132
Hennard, George, 12
Hickok, James Butler “Wild Bill,” 41, 43
High Forehead, 94–95
Himmler, Heinrich, 161
Hinckley, Gordon B., 65, 82
Hiroshima, Japan, 34
Hispanics, 5, 12
history, Americans’ disdain for, 37–45
Hitler, Adolf, 105
Holocaust, 161
Holt, Joseph, 107
Holy Road, 94
Hopkins, Albert, 156
Hotchkiss gun, 151
Hunkpapas, 129, 131
Hussein, Saddam, 160
Hutton, Paul Andrew, 37
I Buried Custer (Coleman), ix
Indiana, 16
Iraq invasion, 59
Ishi, 53, 54, 60
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 48
Johnson, Nephi, 3, 3
Joseph, Chief, 124, 129, 131
Julesburg, Colo., 106, 108
Kanosh, 82, 83, 83
Kautz, August Valentine, 127
Kearny, Stephen Watts, 50
Kiäsax, 118
Killeen, Tex., mass shooting, 12
Kiowas, 9, 58, 94, 135
Klamaths, 48, 59–60
Klingensmith, Philip, 79, 86
Krakatoa eruption, 2
Kroeber, Theodora, 54
Kurds, 160
Lajeunesse, Basil, 59–60
Lassen, Peter, 50
La Vérendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes de, Sieur, 116
Leavitt, Mike, 78
Lee, John Doyle, 19–20, 19, 122
confessions of, 65, 87
execution of, 79, 86–87
at Mountain Meadows Massacre, 79–80, 89
prosecution of, 85–86, 88, 89
Young and, 72, 79–80
see also Mountain Meadows Massacre (1857)
Lee, Robert E., 98
Left Hand, 55
Lewis, Meriwether, 116
Lewis and Clark expedition, 41, 116–17
Limerick, Patricia Nelson, 15
Lincoln, Abraham, 96
Little Bighorn, Battle of (1876), 5, 25, 96, 106, 123, 130
casualties in, ix, 2, 31
Coleman’s description of, ix
Grant on, 107
as Indian victory, 129, 132
Little Big Man and, 111
mutilations after, 33, 34, 112–13
reconnaissance ignored by Custer at, 59
Reno’s troops at, 125
representations of, 37–40, 38
Sitting Bull’s vision before, 137–38
Little Big Man, 133
Little Big Man (Berger), 40, 111
Little Crow, 95, 96
Little Thunder, 95
Little Wolf, 141
Logan family, 110
Long Walk (1862), 24, 60
Lost Bird, 154
McGillycuddy, Valentine, 140, 143, 144, 145
Mackenzie, Ranald Slidell, 131
McLaughlin, James, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145
Mahdists, 137
Maidus, 47, 48, 53–54, 60
Marcy, Randolph, 61
Marias River Massacre (1870), 15, 115–18
casualties of, 115
Wounded Knee compared with, 152
Martin, Thomas, 32, 51, 52
massacres:
apprehension as factor in, 6, 9, 11, 56, 97–98, 138, 143
of Armenians, 2
Carson’s “perfect butchery” description of, 1, 23, 25, 26, 53
casualty figures in, 28, 29–35
definitions of, 1
herd reactions likened to, 160
Hispanics as victims of, 5
literature on, 163–65
moral taint of, 19–22
mutilations after, ix, 33, 34, 35, 105, 112–13
as preemptive strikes, 6, 16
reliability of accounts of, 7, 25–28, 163–64
as total wipeouts, 15
trauma and guilt of parties to, 2–3
tribalism as factor in, 58
of Tutsis, 2
women and children as main victims of, 31–32, 161
see also specific massacres Massacres of the Mountains (Dunn), 5–6, 109, 163
Mencken, H. L., 109
Mescalero Apaches, 24, 60, 123
Mexicans, Apaches and, 119, 120, 124
Miles, Nelson:
Geronimo and, 5, 124, 131
Sitting Bull and, 132, 140, 143, 144
Wounded Knee aftermath and, 155
Miller, Henry, 153
Minneconjou, 147
Modocs, 47, 129
Modoc War, 56
Monroe, James, 16
Monterey, Calif., 50
Monument Valley, Utah, 41
Mooney, James, 135–37, 151, 154, 156
Moravian Indians, 110
Mormons (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints):
blood atonement doctine of, 67, 73
court system and, 85–86
Mountain Meadows Massacre and, 3–4, 20, 26–27, 63–90
persecution of, 67, 89–90
as record keepers, 70
U.S. government and, 66–67, 69, 70, 71, 85–86
see also Mountain Meadows Massacre (1857)
Morongos, 48
motion pictures, 40–41, 48
Mountain Meadows Massacre (1857), 2, 15, 63–90, 121
account of discovery of, 81–82
attacking force of, 75
casualties in, 26, 64
copy-cat attacks after, 85
court of inquiry into, 84–85
final slaughter in, 77–78
forensic evidence of, 63, 65, 78, 87–88
Forney investigation of, 82–84
Haight and, 70, 71, 72
initial attack and siege of, 75–77
Lee’s prosecution and execution for, 85–87, 88
looting of dead after, 80–81, 84
monuments at site of, 65, 80, 84, 88–89
Mormon denial of lead role in, 3–4, 20, 26–27, 63, 78, 81, 82, 86, 89
Mormon participation in, 64–65, 68, 75–79, 80–81, 82–84
Mormon peace offer in, 76–77
motive for, 89
Paiutes and, 27, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73, 75–79, 82–83, 86
Sand Creek Massacre compared with, 89–90
survivors of, 77, 83–84
U.S. Army and, 26, 66–67, 69, 70, 71, 82, 84–85
Wounded Knee compared with, 152
Young and, 26–27, 63, 69–72, 79–80, 84, 86, 89
Mountain Meadows Massacre, The (Brooks), 64, 65
Mulvany, John, 37
mutilations, ix
at Fetterman Massacre, 34, 112
at Little Big Horn, 33, 34, 112–13
at Sand Creek, 35, 105, 112–13
see also scalping
Native Americans:
agency system and victimization of, 6, 95
of California, 47–48, 53–56, 59–60
criminalization of killing of, 16–17
final resistance of, 129–34
leadership structures of, 94
as main target of massacres, 5–6
misuse of trust funds of, 159
removals of, 2, 13, 15–16, 24, 60, 140–42, 159
warrior ethic of, 56–57
Navaho, 24, 60, 61
Nazis, 161
Nemattanew, 136
Neva, 55
New Encyclopedia of the American West, The, 29–30
Newer World, A (Roberts), 47, 48, 53, 60
New York Times, The, 5, 63
Nez Percé, 5, 11, 124, 129, 132–33
Noch-ay-del-klin, 136–37
Nome Cult, 111
Norfolk, Nebr., 11, 12
Oakley, Annie, 131, 142
Oglala Sioux, 129
Oklahoma:
Five Civilized Tribes in, 98, 141, 159
Ghost Dance revival in, 157
On the Border with Crook (Bourke), 123
Oregon Trail, 94
Osages, 58
Owl Woman, 91
Oxford English Dictionary, 1
Paiutes:
Frémont and, 48, 59, 66
Ghost Dance and, 157
Mountain Meadows Massacre and, 27, 64, 66, 68, 71, 73, 75–79, 86
Pansy Society of America, 156
Papagos, Apaches and, 119, 120, 124
Park, Hamilton Gray, 70, 71
Parker, Cynthia Ann, 131
Pawnees, 58, 94
Penn, Arthur, 40, 111
Penn, Captain, 120
Pequots, 16, 110, 111
Pickford, Mary, 48
Piegan Blackfeet, 115–18, 118
Pine Ridge Agency, 5, 147, 151, 152, 155
Platte Bridge, Battle of, 106
Powder River, 140
Powell, John Wesley, 135
Prather, W. H., 153
Pratt, Eleanor McComb McLean, 67–68
Pratt, Parley, 67–68, 67, 80
Pumpelly, Raphael, 124–25
Quahadi Comanches, 130
Quanah Parker, 57, 58, 127, 129, 130, 131, 158
Ramona (Jackson), 48
Red Cloud, 47, 57, 58, 123, 127, 129, 158
Cooper Union speech of, 41
on Crook, 130
death of, 130
Hopkins ridiculed by, 156
as negotiator, 130, 131, 153
at Pine Ridge Agency, 147
on White Man’s promises, 13, 126
Wounded Knee Massacre and, 153
Red Cloud’s War, 109, 140
Redford, Robert, 48
Red River War, 131
Red Tomahawk, 146, 147
Reno, Marcus A., 31, 125
Roberts, David, 47, 48, 53, 60
Rolle, Andrew, 52
Roman Nose, 109
Roosevelt, Theodore, 41
Rosebud, Battle of the, 31, 106, 123, 129
Rwanda, 2, 21, 160
Sacagawea, 41
Sacramento River Massacre (1846), 4, 15, 23, 26, 47–61, 89, 119
Breckenridge’s account of, 51, 52
Carson at, 51–52, 53, 59, 60
casualties in, 51–52
Martin’s account of, 51, 52
Wounded Knee compared with, 152
St. Vrain, Ceran, 91
Sand Creek Massacre (1864), 5, 15, 27, 91–113, 121, 122
aftermath of, 105–6, 125
Black Kettle at, 103, 104, 111
casualties in, 26, 30, 32, 35
Chivington’s lack of repentance for, 20–21, 24
Chivington’s leadership in, 24, 54–55
Chivington’s report of, 26, 30
court of inquiry into, 107–8
Grant on, 107
Grant’s condemnation of, 21
Little Big Man and, 111
looting after, 105
main attack of, 104–5
Mountain Meadows Massacre
compared with, 89–90
mutilations following, 35, 105, 112–13
reliability of eyewitness accounts of, 27–28
scouts’ roles at, 103–4
Soule at, 101, 104, 106
Soule’s testimony about, 107
stories about, 104–5
volunteer force raised for, 100–101
Wounded Knee compared with, 152
Sandoz, Mari, 141
San Francisco earthquake, 2
Santa Fe Trail, 91
Satank, 9, 10
Satanta, 9, 10
scalping, ix, 35, 132
see also mutilations
Seminoles, 111
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, 2, 12, 34
Seventh-day Adventists, 144
Shangneau, John, 149
Sheridan, Philip, 109
Sherman, William Tecumseh, 9–11, 102, 102, 109, 161
Shoop, George, 105, 108
Short Bull, 144, 147
Shoshonis, 123
Sioux, 6, 13, 129, 130, 158
Black Hills and, 140–41, 143
at Fetterman Massacre, 112
Ghost Dance and, 135, 143–44, 145–47, 154, 158
government dishonesty toward, 140–42
Grattan conflict with, 94–95
Little Bighorn and, 34, 124–25
Red Cloud’s War and, 109–10
at Standing Rock Reservation, 143–47
Wounded Knee Massacre and, 5, 30, 135–56
Sitting Bull (Arapaho mystic), 157
Sitting Bull (Sioux leader), 44, 47, 58, 127, 129
Buffalo Bill and, 131, 142, 144–45
Canadian exile of, 130, 132, 142
death of, 5, 130, 145–47
Ghost Dance and, 5, 143–44, 145–47, 158
personality of, 131
at Standing Rock Reservation, 143–47
victory vision of, 137–38
as Western icon, 41, 44
smallpox, 94, 115
Smith, Jack, 103
Smith, Jedediah, 60
Son of the Morning Star (Connell), 40, 163
Soule, Silas, 101, 101, 104, 106, 107
Spencer family, 111
Spotted Horse, 155
Spotted Tail, 127, 129, 130, 131
Staked Plains, 131
Standing Rock Reservation, 130, 143–47
Stand Watie, 98
Sutter’s Fort, Calif., 50
Sword, George, 154
Sword, Jennie, 154
Tecumseh, 47, 136
Trail of Tears, 60, 98, 141
tribalism, 58
Turks, Armenians massacred by, 2
Utah War, 69
Utes, 5
Utley, Robert, 142
Victorio, 58, 119, 127
Vietnam War, 34
Vina, Calif., 4
Voices of Wounded Knee (Coleman), 155, 163
Walker, Joseph, 50
Warren Wagon Train Raid, 9
Washington, D.C., sniper attacks, 12
Washita attack (1868), 106, 111
Weldon, Catherine, 142
West:
American ignorance about history of, 37–45
in books and movies, 40–41, 48
West, Jessamyn, 16, 17
West, main icons of, 41, 44, 129
White Antelope, 55, 111
White Mountain Reservation, 120
Whiteside, Samuel, 149
White Wolf, 55
Whitman, Royal E., 119–20, 121, 122, 125
Wichitas, 135, 157
Willie Boy, 48, 49
Wilson, Jack (Wovoka), 134, 136, 138–40, 157
&nb
sp; Wilson, James, 55–56, 136
Wintus, 47, 48, 53–54, 60
Wise, William, 65
World War I, 5
World War II, 34
Wounded Knee, S. Dak., 159–60
Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), 3, 5, 135–56
aftermath of, 152–56
Black Coyote and, 150, 151–52, 155, 160
casualties in, 26, 30, 35, 151
as final act in Indian dispossession, 158–60
Ghost Dance movement and, 30, 131, 134, 135–37, 151
Indian decline between Camp Grant Massacre and, 129–34
machine gun used at, 151
marker at site of, 157
other massacres compared with, 152
reliability of eyewitness accounts of, 27–28
as revenge for Little Bighorn, 155
survivors of, 33, 152, 154
as total wipeout, 15
Wovoka (Jack Wilson), 134, 136, 157
messiah letters of, 138–40
Yanas, 47, 48, 54, 60
Yellow Bird, 151, 154
Yellow Hair (Hay-o-wei), 132
Yellow Woman, 91
Young, Brigham, 27
death of, 87
deposition of, 70, 80, 86
diary of, 69
on disloyal church members, 85
dispatch letter of, 70–71
Lee and, 72, 79–80
Mountain Meadows Massacre and, 26–27, 63, 69–72, 79–80, 84, 86, 89
U.S. government and, 66–67, 69, 70, 71
Young, Ewing, 60
Young Man Afraid of His Horses, 155, 158
Zitkala-noni, Marguarite, 154
Zitkalazi, Herbert, 154
Zulus, 137
Photo Credits
The author gratefully acknowledges permission from the following sources to reproduce pictures in their control.
PAGE
3
Nephi Johnson: Courtesy of the Church Archives. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
4
J. P. Dunn: Indiana Historical Society, collection P0411.
10
Satanta (top) and Satank (bottom): both Corbis.
11
Norfolk, Nebraska: Elkhorn Valley Museum and Research Center, Norfolk, Nebraska.
19
John Doyle Lee: Utah State Historical Society, all rights reserved.
20
John Milton Chivington: Colorado Historical Society, Neg # F22;F24623.
22
Ulysses S. Grant: Culver Pictures.
23
Kit Carson: Culver Pictures.
25
John C. Frémont: Culver Pictures.
27
Brigham Young: Culver Pictures.
29
Chief Big Foot: Corbis.
32
William Fetterman: Fort Laramie National Historical Site Museum, Burt Collection.
38–39
“Custer’s Last Fight”: Culver Pictures.
42
Reward for Billy the Kid (top): Hulton/Archive/Getty Images. Billy the Kid (bottom): Culver Pictures.