6. Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization, 2005 Annual Report (New York: KEDO, 2005), 13.
7. For a short but comprehensive review of KEDO’s history, see Yoshinori Takeda, “KEDO Adrift,” Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, vol. 6 (2005), iss. 2: 123–131. The article might be seen as an unintended obituary for the KEDO, which ceased operations soon after it was published.
8. Jeffrey Smith, “U.S. Accord with North Korea May Open Country to Change,” Washington Post, October 23, 1994, A36. Expectations of imminent collapse were widely—albeit privately—shared with the journalists at the time. See, for example, Jim Hoagland, “The Trojan Horse at North Korea’s Gate,” Washington Post, August 2, 1995, A25.
9. The World Food Program INTERFAIS database. Available at www.wfp.org/fais.
10. For a detailed description of the monitoring regime, see Stephan Haggard and Marcus Noland, Famine in North Korea: Markets, Aid and Reform (New York: Columbia University Press, 2007), 92–102.
11. Siegfried Hecker, “Lessons Learned from the North Korean Nuclear Crises,” Daedalus 139 (Winter 2010): 47.
12. The Kosis, the database of the National Statistics Office, is available at nso.go.kr.
13. 2010 T’ongil ŭisik chosa [2010 Survey of unification opinion] (Seoul: Sŏultaehakkyo t’ongilp’yŏnghwayŏnkuso, 2010), 22–23.
14. Aidan Foster-Carter, “Towards the Korean Endgame,” The Observer, December 1, 2002.
15. The World Food Program INTERFAIS database. Available at www.wfp.org/fais.
16. T’ongkyech’ŏng, Pukhanŭi chuyot’ongkyechip’yoo [North Korea’s main statistical indicators] (Seoul: National Statistical Office, 2010), 35, 87.
17. Statistics for the Kǔmgang project can be found at “Kŭmkangsan kwankwang 10 chunyŏn kwanlyŏn charyo,” Pukhan kyŏngche ripyu, 2008, iss. 11: 78–95.
18. For the best available summary on the KIZ situation in English, see Dick Nanto and Mark Manyin, The Kaesŏng North-South Korean Industrial Complex. RL 34903 (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2011).
19. Hahm Chaibong, “South Korea’s Miraculous Democracy,” Journal of Democracy 19 (2008): 138.
20. Kando, known in Chinese as Jiandao, is an area located on the western bank of the Tuman River. The exact borders of the area are disputed, but more radical Korean nationalists include a large part of Manchuria in Kando.
21. Hangyore, September 4, 2004.
22. For a detailed treatment of the history wars between China and the Koreas, see Terence Roehrig, “History as a Strategic Weapon: The Korean and Chinese Struggle over Koguryo,” in Korean Studies in the World: Democracy, Peace, Prosperity, and Culture, ed. Seung Ham Yang, Yeon Sik Choi, and Jong Kun Choi (Seoul: Jimoondang, 2008); Peter Hays Gries, “The Koguryo Controversy, National Identity, and Sino-Korean Relations Today,” East Asia, vol. 22 (2005), iss.4: 3–17; Andrei Lankov, “The Legacy of Long-Gone States: China, Korea and the Koguryo Wars.” Japan Focus, September 2, 2006.
23. For 2010 data, see Chungang Ilbo, May 27, 2011; for other data, see Dick Nanto and Mark E. Manyin, China-North Korea Relations (Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2010), 15. For 2011 data, see: 2011nyŏnto Pukhan-ŭi taeoe kyŏngche silchŏk punsŏk-kwa 2012 nyŏnto chŏnmang [2011 North Korea’s domestic an international economic performance and 2012 outlook] (Seoul: Taeoe kyŏngche chŏngch’aek yŏnkuwŏn, 2012), 4.
24. “China, South Korea Start Talks on Free-Trade Pact,” Bloomberg News, May 2, 2012.
25. For a detailed review of the current state of Chinese economic advances into North Korea, see Jaewoo Choo, “Mirroring North Korea’s Growing Economic Dependence on China: Political Ramifications,” Asian Survey 48 (2008): 343–372.
INTERLUDE
1. “North Korea: 6 Million Are Hungry,” Reuters, March 26, 2011; Charles Clover, “Catastrophe in North Korea; China must pressure Pyongyang to allow food aid to millions threatened by famine,” The Times. March 22, 2010. 2; Blaine Harden, “At the Heart of North Korea’s Troubles, an Intractable Hunger Crisis,” Washington Post, March 6, 2009, A.1; Reuters, “Food Shortage Looms in North Korea,” International Herald Tribune, April 17, 2008, 3.
2. 2009nyŏn pukhan kyŏngchesŏngchangryul ch’uchŏng kyŏlkwa [Results from estimates of North Korea’s 2009 growth rates] (Seoul: Hankuk ŭnhaeng, 2010), 1.
CHAPTER 5
1. Wade L. Huntley, “Sit Down and Talk,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 59 (2003): 28.
2. Wade L. Huntley, “Threats All the Way Down: U.S. Nuclear Initiatives in a Unipolar World,” Review of International Studies 32 (2006): 49–67.
3. Lee Edwards, Mediapolitik: How the Mass Media Have Transformed World Politics (Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2001), 126.
4. InterMedia, International Broadcasting in North Korea: North Korean Refugee/Traveler Survey Report April–August 2009 (Washington, D.C.: InterMedia, 2009).
5. Peter Beck, “North Korea’s Radio Waves of Resistance,” Wall Street Journal, April 16, 2010.
CHAPTER 6
1. On the MMM scheme in Russia, see William Rosenberg, The Democratic Experience in the Transitional Russia. In Extending the Borders of Russian History: Essays in Honor of Alfred Rieber (Budapest and New York: Central European University Press, 2003), 525–526. On the Albanian civil war of 1997, see Dirk Bezemer (ed.), On Eagle’s Wings: The Albanian Economy in Transition (New York: Nova Science, 2008), 22–24.
2. International Crisis Group, Strangers at Home: North Koreans in the South Report N°208, (Brussels: International Crisis Group, 2011), 17.
3. Elisabeth Bumiller and David Sanger, “Gates Warns of North Korea Missile Threat to U.S.,” New York Times, January 11, 2011.
4. Doug Waller, “The Second Time Around for Bob Gates,” Time, December 4, 2006.
BOX 13
1. “Korean Unification Will Cost Over US$3 Trln, Experts Say,” Asia Pulse, September 14, 2010. Original report available at the website of the FKI, www.fki.or.kr.
2. “Think-Tank Estimates Unification Cost for Koreas at $2.14 tln,” Korea Herald, February 27, 2011.
3. Kim Hee-jin, “Post-Kim Unification Cost Estimates Keep Rising,” Korea Joongang Daily, January 12, 2012.
4. The report is not publicly available, but Credit Suisse funding was reported at the time. See, for example, “Peace Worries Some Korea Watchers More than War,” China Post, October 28, 2009.
5. Peter Beck, “Contemplating Korean Reunification,” Wall Street Journal, January 4, 2010.
INDEX
The abbreviations N.K. and S.K. stand for “North Korea” and “South Korea.”
Agreed Framework Treaty, 151
agriculture
Agricultural Union, 40
fertilizers, 77, 78, 165
irrigation, 78
1990s collapse of, 78–80
private plots, 36–37, 83, 121
private sales, 141
reforms under Kim Jong Un, 141
state farms, 36–37, 77–78, 83
terraced fields, 78
See also famines; food supply
Albania, 241–42
Anti-Imperialist Union, 52
April Revolution, 27
archaeological sites, 86
Armistice Treaty, 11, 27
See also Korean War
badges. See clothing
Banco Delta Asia (BDA), 154, 157, 206
Beck, Peter, 226, 236
Brezhnev, Leonid, 18–19
Burma, 31, 147
Bush, George W., 154, 157
capitalism. See China; economy of North Korea
cell phones. See consumer goods
Central Committee, 143
Central Military Committee, 134
Chad, 64
Chang, Song-t’aek, 135, 137
Cheonan (South Korean ship), 179
child mortality, 64
See also health care
Chile, 182
China
agricultura
l collectives, 16–17
capitalism, 75
child mortality, 64
Chinese Civil War, 26
Communism, 3, 5–6, 10, 16–17, 75, 110, 213
Cultural Revolution, 19
as developmental dictatorship, 110, 195
economic growth, 110, 180, 182–83
economic reforms, 75, 109–10, 112–13, 114, 213, 214
famine, 17, 79–80
foreign aid to N.K., 19–20, 73–74, 75, 76, 152, 154, 156, 176, 184–85, 211
future relationship with N.K., 192–202
Great Leap Forward, 17, 73, 79–80
Kim Il Sung in, 2
Korean War, 11
North Korean refugees to, 90–91, 94–95, 102–03, 123, 181
nuclear research, 147
political persecution, 46
porous border with N.K., 86, 92, 123, 225
relationship with N.K., 11, 19, 31, 156, 179–85
relationship with Soviet Union, 11, 20, 76
and special economic zones, 170, 171, 172
territory dispute with S.K., 181, 201
trade with N.K., 87, 182
and World War II, 2, 3, 4
See also Manchuria; Maoism; Mao, Zedong
Chinese Civil War, 26
Chongjin, N.K., 123
Chongryon (Chosen Soren), 23, 24
Christianity
persecution under Kim Il Sung, 7–8
and sŏngbun system, 41
Chung, Ju-yung, 165
Churchill, Winston, 260
citizens. See daily life of citizens
Clemens, Walter, 148
Clinton, Bill, 151–52, 177
clothing
badges, 33, 51
during Kim Il Sung era, 87
during Kim Jong Il era, 87, 90, 91
restrictions on women, 90, 223
Cold War, 3, 75, 96
college. See education
Communism
collapse of, 114, 159, 213, 229
and currency reform, 127
Czechoslovakia, 228
East Asian/Chinese version of, 3, 5–6, 10, 16–17, 75, 110, 213
Eastern European, 5, 26, 75, 114, 159, 213–14, 241, 250
founding fathers of, 13–15
gender relations under, 24–26
and government debt, 20
isolationist policies, 43–45
and Juche propaganda, 57
Poland, 229
Politburos under, 13
and South Korean Left, 159–60
Soviet, 6, 16, 18, 24–26, 159, 213
state farms under, 36
“United Front” strategy, 28–29
See also China; Eastern Europe; North Korea (DPRK); Soviet Union; Vietnam
computers. See consumer goods
Confucianism, 50
consumer goods
cell phones, 97, 231
during Kim Il Sung era, 34–36
during Kim Jong Il era, 87, 93, 103–04
DVDs, 103, 130, 189, 190, 216, 225, 227
electronics and computers, 103–04, 130, 189, 190, 225
luxury goods, 189
See also clothing
Cultural Revolution, 19
Cumings, Bruce, 51
currency reform. See economy of North Korea
Czechoslovakia, 228, 229
daily life of citizens
awareness of outside world, 102–08, 112, 190–91, 214–17, 225
government control over, 34–45, 65, 89–90, 107–08, 117
health care, 64–66
hereditary groups, 41–42
housing, 37, 143–44
inminban system, 38–39, 40, 43, 45
interactions with foreigners, 44, 91
isolationist policies, 39, 43–45, 53, 113, 117, 173, 190, 213
media/publications, 44, 45, 52, 99–102
mutual criticism sessions, 41, 107
organizational life, 39–41, 45, 122
radio, 39, 43–44, 89, 217, 225, 226
sŏngbun system, 41–42, 84
travel, 37–38, 89, 90–91, 93
See also clothing; consumer goods; education; employment; food supply; infrastructure; markets; marriage
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (DPRK). See North Korea (DPRK)
Deng, Xiaoping, 193
Denmark, 21
dictatorships, developmental, 109–10, 195
DMZ (Demilitarized Zone)
establishment of, 11
potential future skirmishes, 178
Seoul’s proximity to, 205
tensions in 1960s, 30–31
travel permits for, 38
DPRK (Democratic People’s Republic of Korea). See North Korea (DPRK)
drugs
production of, 86–87
smuggling, 21, 86, 87, 112
East Asia
Communism, 5–6, 16–17, 75
economic growth, 109–10
nuclear arms race, 182
See also China; Japan
Eastern Europe
collapse of Communism, 26, 75, 114, 213–14, 241, 250
Communist ideology, 5
gender relations, 25, 26
lustration system, 250
“second society,” 228–29
See also Czechoslovakia; East Germany; Poland; Soviet Union
East Germany
Cold War refugees, 96
overthrow of regime, 112, 114
per capita income, 160
and reunification, 245
economy of North Korea
capitalism “from below,” 82–88, 119, 120, 189
collapse (1990s), xiii, 26, 32, 74, 75, 76–80, 82–91, 149
consumer goods. See consumer goods
currency reform, 123, 126–32
current stagnation, 216
economic reforms, xv, 75, 109, 110–19, 120, 145, 189–90, 215–16
employment. See employment
foreign aid. See foreign aid
foreign currency, 87
industries. See industries
markets. See markets
middle class, 189
military spending, 71–72
newly rich citizens, 91–93
per capita GDP, 64, 112, 150, 188–89
“7.1 measures,” 111, 119–20
slowdown (1970s), 35, 66–67, 70, 71–74
“spirit of self-reliance,” 72–73, 88
as state secret, 70, 77
trade. See trade
See also agriculture; infrastructure; North Korea (Kim Il Sung era); North Korea (Kim Jong Il era); private enterprise
economy of South Korea
agriculture, 69
current slowdown, 173
dependence on foreign markets, 178
economic growth, xiii, 28, 43, 70–72, 105
economic reforms, 109–10
employment, 98
income equality, 105–06
joint North-South enterprises, 165–70, 175–76, 219–21
land speculation, 240
per capita GDP, 70, 109, 112
prosperity, xiii, 43, 103–05, 109–10, 112–15
salaries, 98
education
college, 37, 42, 66
and ideological indoctrination, 59–61, 66
investment by newly rich, 93
post-unification, 246
primary, 66
secondary, 64
Egypt, 21
electronics. See consumer goods
employment
advancement opportunities, 113
during economic collapse, 26, 77, 83–85
grain rations linked to, 35
handicrafts, 7, 83
opportunities for women, 24–26, 37, 83–84, 123
salaries, 89–90, 120, 124–26, 183
state enterprises, 26, 36–37, 69–70, 72–73, 77, 83, 122
state farms, 36–37,
77–78, 83
Trade Union organization, 40
See also agriculture; markets; private enterprise
Engels, Friedrich, 50
ethnic Koreans
in China, 63, 94–95, 102–03, 123, 181
in Japan, 23–24, 48
returnees, 24, 48, 63–64, 94–95
family responsibility principle, 47–48, 91
famines
Chinese, 17, 79–80
Great North Korean, xiii, 26, 64, 79–80, 88–89, 121, 152–53, 238
predictions of future, 188
Soviet Union, 9
farming. See agriculture
Federation of Korean Industries, 235–36
Finland, 21
food supply
humanitarian aid, 121, 138, 152–53, 154
imports from China, 87
malnourishment, 121, 189
rationing, 34–35, 36, 79, 121–22
See also agriculture; famines; grain; public distribution system (PDS)
foreign aid
from China, 19–20, 73–74, 75, 76, 152, 154, 156, 176, 184–85, 211
dependence on, xii, 117, 145, 150, 211
fertilizer, 77, 165