Cronin, Vincent. Louis & Antoinette. New York: William Morrow & Co., 1974.
De Feydeau, Elisabeth, A Scented Palace: The Secret History of Marie Antoinette’s Perfumer. London & New York: I. B. Tauris, 2006.
Erickson, Carolly. To The Scaffold: The Life of Marie Antoinette. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin, 1991.
Fraser, Antonia. Marie Antoinette: The Journey. New York: Anchor Books, 2002.
Haslip, Joan. Marie Antoinette. New York: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1987.
Hearsey, John. Marie Antoinette. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1973.
Hibbert, Christopher and the editors of the Newsweek Book Division. Versailles. New York: Newsweek Book Division, 1972.
Lady Younghusband. Marie Antoinette: Her Youth. London: Macmillan and Co., Ltd., 1912.
Lever, Evelyne. Marie Antoinette: The Last Queen of France. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2000.
Loomis, Stanley. The Fatal Friendship: Marie Antoinette, Count Fersen, and the Flight to Varennes. New York: Avon Books, 1972.
Mossiker, Frances. The Queen’s Necklace: Marie Antoinette and the Scandal that Shocked and Mystified France. London: Orion Books, Ltd., 2004. Originally published in Great Britain by Victor Gollancz, Ltd. in 1961.
Pick, Robert. Empress Maria Theresa. New York: Harper & Row, 1966.
Thomas, Chantal. (trans. Julie Rose). The Wicked Queen: The Origins of the Myth of Marie Antoinette. New York: Zone Books, 2001.
Weber, Caroline. What Marie Antoinette Wore to the Revolution. New York, Picador, 2006.
Webster, Nesta H. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette During the Revolution. New York: Gordon Press, 1976.
Zweig, Stefan. (trans. Cedar and Eden Paul). Marie Antoinette: The Portrait of an Average Woman. New York: Grove Press, 2002. Originally published in the United States by Viking Press in 1933.
Glossary
Below are most of the French words and phrases found in the novel that are not obvious cognates, with their English definitions.
À bas la monarchie Down with the monarchy (expression chanted in the streets during the French Revolution)
allées paths
allez-vous Go
attends Wait (a command)
au fond basically, really
au revoir good-bye
bal masqué masquerade ball
baume samaritain a specific type of balm or ointment
beau-frère brother-in-law
belle-soeur sister-in-law
berceau cradle
bien sûr of course
bonjour Hello, good day, good morning
bonne chance good luck
bonne nuit good night
bon soir good evening
bourreau executioner
carosse de gala large, fancy carriage used on special occasions
ça suffit that’s enough (a command)
c’est charmant, oui it’s charming, yes (isn’t it)
c’est défendu it’s forbidden
c’est divine, n’est-ce pas it’s divine, isn’t it
c’est vrai it’s true
chef d’oeuvre a masterpiece
chère amie dear friend (feminine)
cheveux hair
collets-montés strait-laced prudes
comme il faut proper, correct
congé leave, dismissal
coucher a royal’s formal, public ritual of getting undressed and into bed each night.
coup de foudre literally a thunderclap; colloquially an expression used to denote the sensation of falling in love at first sight
dame d’atours mistress of the robes
dame d’honneur superintendent of a royal lady’s household; the highest ranking woman in her retinue
dîtes-moi tell me (a command)
écu monetary unit; a coin. Its value varied and there were both gold and silver écus. A silver écu was also known as a louis d’argent.
enceinte Pregnant
enfants Children
est-ce tellement vrai? is it really true?
femme Wife
fenêtre Window
fête champêtre an outdoor repast, picnic, or event
gazette des atours the book that catalogued all of the queen’s garments, from which she made her daily wardrobe selections
gitane a gypsy
glaces Mirrors
grand-père grandfather
hameau hamlet; rustic village
homme a man
hôtel mansion
il etait si noble, si gentil he was so noble, so kind
Je m’en fous I’ll be damned/I don’t give a damn (slang)
Je t’aime, ma chère coeur I love you, my dear heart
Je vous prie I beg you
jolie pretty
la reine the queen
la tête the head
le Bien-Aimé the Well-Loved (Louis XV)
lettre de cachet official document issued by the king consigning someone to banishment, or remanding someone to prison without having to specify the reason
lever the reverse ritual of the coucher, performed every morning, where the royal is publicly dressed and makes his/her toilette; getting dressed, made up, coiffed, etc., can take hours. Levers were also business and social times where they heard petitions and chatted as they were
dressed. Meanwhile, invited spectators and guests could enjoy a snack.
lit de justice a formal session of the Parlement de Paris, the capital city’s judicial body, for the compulsory registration of the king’s edicts. The king would recline on a divan or “bed” (lit)
Louis le Desiré Louis the Desired (nickname of Louis XVI upon his accession to the throne)
ma belle my beauty (a term of endearment)
ma chère (feminine) my dear
mon cher (masculine)
ma pauvre petite my poor little one (feminine)
ma très chère amie my very dear friend
mais but
maîtresse en titre a royal’s official mistress; a formal role at the French court
marchande de modes fashion merchant; stylist
mari husband
mari complaisant the term for a complacent or compliant husband aware of, if not complicit in, his wife’s extramarital affair
médecin doctor
médisance backbiting, mean-spirited gossip
moi, aussi me, too
mon frère my brother
mouche artificial beauty mark; literally a fly; a patch to cover a pockmark, but often used purely for cosmetic reasons.
parfums perfumes
pas pour moi not for me
passementerie a type of elaborate, dimensional trimming stitched onto garments, usually in looping patterns
pauvre poor, unfortunate
Permettez-moi de vous offrir mes condoléances. J’en suis désolée Permit me to offer you my condolences. I am so sorry [about it].
petit déjeuner breakfast
petite armée little army
petits bisous little kisses
peut-être perhaps, maybe
poissarde fishmonger (female)
poitrine a woman’s chest, bosom area
premier chirugien first surgeon
prenez soin take care, be careful
quoi what
rien nothing
rue street, avenue
sois courageux Take courage (literally, be courageous)
suis prête I’m ready
tant pis too bad (as in, tough noogies)
tapissiers upholsterers
tellement fatigué much fatigued
une étrangère a foreigner (female)
vendeuse saleswoman
vite quickly, fast
Vive le roi Louis Seize Long live King Louis XVI
voici here is/here are
voleuse thief
Vo
tre Majesté, Vos Majestés Your Majesty, Your Majesties
Vous l’avez détesté You hated him
vraiment really, truly
ALSO BY JULIET GREY
Becoming Marie Antoinette
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
JULIET GREY is the author of Becoming Marie Antoinette. She has extensively researched European royal history and is a particular devotee of Marie Antoinette, as well as a classically trained professional actress with numerous portrayals of virgins, vixens, and villainesses to her credit. She and her husband divide their time between New York City and southern Vermont.
www.becomingmarie.com
Juliet Grey on Writing
Days of Splendor, Days of Sorrow
It provided great pleasure, but also left me with a measure of sadness, to continue the story of Marie Antoinette’s life in Days of Splendor, Days of Sorrow, because of course we know the tragic denouement. I felt that part of my role in this middle novel in the trilogy was to show how Marie Antoinette’s journey continued along its fatal path. It’s clear from the book’s epigraph, taken from a quote at the time she ascended to the throne as the queen consort of Louis XVI, that she was considered a liability. Add that to all the animosity that had built up against her, particularly within the French court, during the four years she was dauphine—an effervescent teenage girl making enemies right and left as she pushed with all her might against the rigid etiquette of Versailles.
One can go back even further to the 950 years of enmity that existed between France and Marie Antoinette’s native Austria, a political albatross hung around her pale and slender neck almost as soon as her betrothal to the future Louis XVI was arranged. When her mother, the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa, sent her to France in April 1770, she exhorted her youngest daughter to make the French love her. With a few notable exceptions, that admiration came mostly during the late reign of Louis XV, who by then was roundly despised by his subjects. The charming (and morally upright) strawberry-blond dauphine and her husband were seen as the great young hopes for France’s future.
But Marie Antoinette’s popularity soon faded as the propaganda spread that she was not comporting herself with the dignity of a French queen and was, moreover, behaving like a royal mistress by decking herself out in increasingly elaborate jewels, gowns, and other accoutrements such as the outrageous (and outrageously expensive) towering “pouf” coiffures. Her subjects, convinced by propaganda disseminated from within Versailles itself, published by nobles she had angered by ostracizing them from her intimate circle, soon saw her as the queen of excess.
Marie Antoinette’s behavior predates the study and practice of psychoanalysis, but in Days of Splendor, Days of Sorrow I aimed to convey the genesis of her extravagance and what lay behind her increasing mania for pleasure. It was of course primarily a substitute for what she most desired—a child, especially a son and heir—not only for the security of the Bourbon dynasty, but because she adored children. Her life might have taken a different trajectory had she conceived early in her marriage. Instead, her first child, a daughter, was born in the waning days of 1778, a frustrating and embarrassing eight and a half years after her nuptials—ample time for her enemies to recast the religiously devout and faithfully wed young queen as a promiscuous hedonist.
What happened on her wedding night was immortalized by Louis in his hunting journal with a single word: rien. Nothing—although the reference was really a notation that the bridegroom had not killed any woodland creatures that day because he’d not gone hunting. Not only was Louis shy and uncomfortable around his new bride, but he may have suffered from a mild deformity of the penis known as phimosis, where the foreskin is too tight to retract. This condition made intercourse, and even an erection, painful.
Historians’ opinions are divided as to whether Louis suffered from phimosis and underwent a minor procedure (not as radical as circumcision) in late 1773 to correct the defect (for narrative reasons I placed the event in 1774, after he became king); or whether his inability to make love to Marie Antoinette was purely psychological or psychosomatic. The latter is harder to believe because Louis admitted that he both loved and respected Marie Antoinette and found her very beautiful. While a number of present-day scholars vehemently dispute the phimosis speculation as being the pet theory of Marie Antoinette’s twentieth-century biographer, the Freudian Stefan Zweig, they cannot explain away the preponderance of correspondence that came out of the Bourbon court at the time. This included not merely the dispatch from the Spanish ambassador to his sovereign graphically discussing the issue of Louis’s penis (which could be dismissed as gossip), but a number of letters written between Marie Antoinette and her mother discussing whether or not Louis was prepared to submit to the operation, and the medical opinions of the various court physicians on the subject. The language of that correspondence most clearly refers to a physical problem. Whether it was compounded by psychological and emotional issues is also a possibility. Unfortunately, Louis’s boyhood tutor, the duc de la Vauguyon, had instilled in him a hatred of women and a particular distrust of Austrian females. But by 1773, the dauphin and dauphine had become close friends, and presented a united front against the duc’s malevolent influence. This was even truer by the time they ascended the throne in 1774.
The subject of Louis’s phimosis and how it was treated is one of a couple of controversial topics I explore in this novel. I do believe that he suffered from a mild physical deformity and that he underwent a corrective procedure. The operation detailed in the novel is taken from a procedure performed in France around 1780 so it is about as accurate a description as one can get of what Louis’s medical treatment might have been like.
Another of my aims in writing the Marie Antoinette trilogy was to convey the humanity (and sometimes not) within these historical figures. Too often they have been depicted in film and literature as archetypes, stereotypes, or dusty relics of an era long past. As I breathed life into characters who to some readers may be little more than names from a history book, I saw them as vibrant and vital, complex and flawed. It was also my intention to depict some of the lesser-known (but equally fact-based) events of their lives. For example, the silk merchants of Lyon really did pay a call on Mesdames asking for their support after Marie Antoinette began to dress almost entirely in the muslin gaulles; Marie Antoinette really did suffer a terrible fall and hit her head, and Madame Royale’s shocking reaction to her mother’s injury, as well as the conversation she had with her father about whether he would have preferred a son instead of her, really happened. I was stunned when I first read about the incident in the many biographies because it revealed so much about the characters of the precocious and envious Madame Royale and the king, who was a tremendously sentimental man. Louis indeed adored his little girl from the moment of her birth and never resented her gender, despite the immense pressure upon both him and Marie Antoinette to produce a son and heir. The fact that both of them were such sentimental, vulnerable, and fairly hands-on parents made them quite anomalous, especially for royals, even in the Age of Enlightenment. In another fascinating moment “ripped from real life,” the queen did indeed summon Jean-Louis Fargeon to le Petit Trianon to create a perfume that captured the essence of her private idyll (I own a replica of the fresh, floral scent, which made my research all the more redolent!). And she did ask Fargeon to develop a unique fragrance for a man she described as “virile as one can possibly be,” that phrase, in translation of course, taken from the perfumer’s own diary. In a subsequent event, to be depicted in The Last October Sky, the third novel of the Marie Antoinette trilogy, many years later the aroma of that custom-made toilet water will come back to haunt Fargeon’s nostrils.
One of the central aspects of this novel is the developing relationship between Count Axel von Fersen and Marie Antoinette. Historically, there has been some controversy as to how far it went, whether it remained strictly platonic, whether (and when) it may have blossomed into a physical love affair, and whet
her Marie Antoinette ever violated her deeply held marriage vows and consummated her passion for Fersen.
I have a cardinal rule about writing historical fiction: If it could have happened, bolstered by solid research, then it’s fair game to be included in a novel. Stanley Loomis, in The Fatal Friendship: Marie Antoinette, Count Fersen, and the Flight to Varennes, offers enough compelling evidence for a relationship between them that may indeed have eventually been consummated. Biographers Antonia Fraser, Stefan Zweig, Vincent Cronin, and André Castelot share that opinion. We have the culture of the eighteenth century to thank for the plethora of diaries and memoirs left to posterity. Some may be more reliable than others. After Marie Antoinette’s death, Fersen’s beloved sister Sophie, to whom he was especially close, burned a number of his letters; and at some point (perhaps after his gruesome murder on June 20, 1810, which took place exactly nineteen years to the day from the royal family’s fateful flight to Varennes in June of 1791, an event that will be dramatized in The Last October Sky), his diaries were heavily redacted. However, enough of Fersen’s own words remain to obliquely hint at a relationship with Marie Antoinette that went far deeper than the proper bounds of a common friendship. We have his declaration to Sophie that he would never wed because he could not be united with the one woman he really loved and who loved him in return. As historians cannot document any abiding yet for some reason inappropriate or equally illicit relationship with another woman (his other love affairs, regardless of their duration, were fairly inconsequential by comparison), the conclusion is viable (certainly by a novelist), that he gave his heart and soul (and the case can be made for giving his body) to Marie Antoinette.
There is no denying that Fersen risked his life more than once to save the queen—and the king, of course, whom he also admired, possibly making his transgression all the more guilt-inducing.
The events that I used to build the relationship between Marie Antoinette and Axel von Fersen are rooted in fact. As for the issue of privacy in a royal court, Marie Antoinette, who detested being surrounded by an enormous entourage while she was dauphine, immediately changed the rules when she became queen, reducing the size of her retinue (most of whom had been assigned to her upon her arrival in 1770) to a handful of trusted attendants. Moreover, she was roundly criticized for turning le Petit Trianon into her exclusive haven. Whereas Versailles had traditionally been open to the people, she had signage posted on the gates of her little château and about its acreage stipulating that entrance to the premises was by permission of the queen alone, and that all visitors had to be escorted inside by her servants or attendants.