The Crusades, 1095-1197
Jonathan Phillips
First published in Great Britain in 2002
For Tom and for Julie
Contents
Acknowledgements
List of illustrations
Chronology
Genealogy of the Rulers of Jerusalem
1. Introduction
Why study the crusades?
The purpose of this book
Historiography and definition
Sources
Context
2. The First Crusade
The appeal of the First Crusade
Preparations for the crusade
The crusade sets out
The Muslim Near East
The crusade in Asia Minor and the siege of Antioch
The siege of Jerusalem
3. The early decades of the Latin East c. 1097-c. 1152: Establishment and consolidation
The 1101 crusade and the early years of conquest
The 1108 crusade — a holy war against Christians
Muslim-Christian relations: warfare and alliances
The kingdom of Jerusalem and the succession of Baldwin I
The Battle of the Field of Blood (1119)
The 1120-24 crusade and the capture of Tyre
The campaigns of King Baldwin II
The reign of King Fulk (1131-43)
Zengi and the fall of Edessa (1144)
The regency of Melisende and the accession of Baldwin III
Conclusion
4. The challenges of a new land: Frankish rule and settlement
Relations with indigenous peoples
Frankish rural settlement
The origins of the Frankish settlers and their way of life
The pattern of Frankish settlement in the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem
Urban life and trade
A Frankish identity?
5. The military orders
The origins and development of the Templars
The origins and development of the Hospitallers
The Hospital in Jerusalem and medical care
The Hospitallers and military activity
The military orders in the West
Conclusion
6. The Second Crusade
Quantum praedecessores: the crusade appeal of Pope Eugenius III
The preaching of the crusade
The scale and scope of the Second Crusade
The conquest of Lisbon
The crusades against Almeria, Tortosa and Jaen
The Baltic crusade
Preparations for the march to the Holy Land
The journey to the East: the crusade at Constantinople and in Asia Minor
The crusade in the Latin East
The siege of Damascus
7. Warfare, strategy and castles in the Levant
Raids, strategy and battles
Castles
Siege warfare
Naval warfare
Conclusion
8. The aftermath of the Second Crusade: Recovery and expansion
The start of closer relations with Byzantium and advances for both the Christians and the Muslims
The rise of Nur ad-Din
The struggle for Egypt
Diplomatic contact with the West and Byzantium
The capture of Alexandria
The mission of Archbishop Frederick of Tyre
King Amalric’s embassy to Constantinople (1171)
9. The Frankish rulers of the Levant: Power and succession, c. 1100-74
Succession and civil war: the problem of newcomers
The maintenance of authority over the Frankish nobility
10. Religious life and pilgrimage in the Levant
The establishment of the Frankish Church in the Levant
Pilgrimage to the Holy Land
The True Cross
The ecclesiastical hierarchy
11. The reign of Baldwin IV, the Leper-King, the rise of Saladin and the Battle of Hattin (1187)
The first regency of Count Raymond III of Tripoli
The rise of Saladin
The invasion of Egypt and the castle at Jacob’s Ford
The marriage of Guy and Sibylla
The 1181 crusade appeal of Pope Alexander III
Prince Reynald’s attack on the Arabian peninsula
The mission of Patriarch Heraclius
The death of King Baldwin IV and the coronation of King Guy
The descent into war
The Battle of Hattin
The fall of Jerusalem
Conclusion
12. The Third Crusade and beyond
Audita tremendi: the Crusade appeal of Pope Gregory VIII
Conrad of Montferrat and the defence of Tyre
The crusade of Frederick Barbarossa
The crusade preparations of Richard the Lionheart
The aims of the Third Crusade and the siege of Acre
The conclusion of the siege of Acre
The Battle of Arsuf
The march on Jerusalem
The second march on Jerusalem and the Battle of Jaffa
Truce
Conclusion to the Third Crusade
The German Crusade of 1197
13. Conclusion: The impact of the Crusades
The impact of crusading in the West
The development of the scope of crusading
The impact of the crusades in the Eastern Mediterranean
Postscript
Documents
Who’s Who
Acknowledgements
In writing this book I have been the beneficiary of kindness and advice from many different quarters. The majority of the approaches and arguments have been tested on my ‘Crusades and Eastern Mediterranean’ classes at Royal Holloway, University of London, and I am thankful to those students for their lively and challenging response to the subject and the material. I am also grateful to Professor Tony Stockwell for his good humoured and unstinting encouragement in all aspects of my career at Royal Holloway. Louise and Jonathan Riley-Smith, Carole Hillenbrand, Mike Routledge, Marcus Bull, Susan Edgington and Peter Edbury very kindly allowed me to use their translations in the documents section, and Vikki Askew, Edward Hatton, Veronique Watt, Natasha Hodgson, Tom Asbridge and Linda Ross offered cogent and helpful criticism of early versions of the text. Paul Loxton generously provided essential medical input where appropriate. I would also like to thank Alistair Duncan and the Bibliotheque Municipale, Boulogne-sur-Mer for allowing the use of their illustrations. It is a pleasure to acknowledge the essential support of my parents, John and Sophie Wallace, Lisa and John Barry, Austen and Janice Rose, Andy and Jackie Griffiths, Ian Jenkins and Tom Asbridge. My thanks to Hilary Shaw and Clive Emsley for inviting me to write this book, to Heather MacCallum for persisting with a slower than anticipated manuscript and to Casey Mein, Emily Pillars, Magda Robson and Sarah Bury for skilfully steering me through the production process. My heartfelt appreciation to Julie for her warmth, her incisive observations and her love. I am happy to dedicate this book to her and to my son, Thomas, my pride and joy.
List of illustrations
1. Map of Jerusalem from c. 1170
2. Knights Templar riding out to battle
3. The Crusader Window from Saint Denis
4. The castle of Montreal, Transjordan
5. The castle of Belvoir in the kingdom of Jerusalem
6. Nur ad-Din’s pulpit in the al-Aqsa Mosque
7. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre
8. The marriage of Guy of Lusignan and Sibylla
Map 1 The Eastern Mediterranean
Map 2 Europe at the Time of the First Crusade
Chronology
103
5 Pilgrimage to Jerusalem by Duke Robert of Normandy
1064-65 German pilgrimage to the Holy Land
1071 Seljuk Turks defeat Byzantine army at the Battle of Manzikert
1095 March Council of Piacenza: envoys from Alexius Comnenus ask Pope Urban II for military help
1095 27 November Council of Clermont — Pope Urban II launches the First Crusade
1095 December-September 1096 Pope Urban tours France preaching the crusade
1095 December-July 1096 Pogroms against Jewish communities of the Rhineland, Bavaria and Rouen
1096 March Departure of the People’s Crusade
1096 August-October Armies of northern French, Toulousains, and Normans of southern Italy set out
1096 November-May 1097 Crusader armies start to arrive at Constantinople (northern French in November, Godfrey of Bouillon in December, Normans of southern Italy and Toulousains in April)
1097 19 June Capture of Nicaea in Asia Minor
1097 1 July Battle of Dorylaeum, Asia Minor
1097 20 October Start of the siege of Antioch
1098 3 June Capture of the city of Antioch
1098 28 June Battle of Antioch
1098 29 June Surrender of the citadel of Antioch
1098 1 August Death of Adhemar of Le Puy
1098 November-May 1099 March down to Jerusalem
1099 7 June Crusaders arrive at Jerusalem
1099 15 July Capture of Jerusalem
1099 22 July Godfrey of Bouillon is chosen to rule Jerusalem as Advocate of the Holy Sepulchre
1099 12 August Battle of Ascalon
1099 August-September Many First Crusaders return home to the West
1100 18 July Death of Godfrey of Bouillon
1100 25 December Coronation of King Baldwin I
1101 17 May Capture of Caesarea
1101 August-September Crusaders are defeated in Asia Minor
1104 7 May Battle of Hauran — Franks heavily defeated
1104 26 May Capture of Acre
1106 Bohemond of Antioch tours France seeking support for a crusade against the Greeks
1107 October-September 1108 Bohemond invades the Byzantine Empire, but is defeated. Treaty of Devol
1109 12 July Capture of Tripoli
1110 13 May Capture of Beirut
1110 4 December Capture of Sidon by a force including Norwegian crusaders led by King Sigurd
1113 Papal bull Pie postulatio voluntatis recognises Hospital of St John in Jerusalem
1118 2 April Death of King Baldwin I on campaign in Egypt
1118 14 April Consecration of King Baldwin II as ruler of Jerusalem
1119 Foundation of the Knights Templar
1119 28 June Battle of the Field of Blood, northern Antioch
1120 January Council of Nablus
1122 April-August 1123 Captivity of King Baldwin II
1124 7 July Capture of Tyre
1127-29 Mission of Hugh of Payns to the West to recruit men for the Damascus crusade and to secure ecclesiastical authorisation for the order of the Temple
1129 May Arrival of Count Fulk V of Anjou to marry Melisende, heiress to Jerusalem
1129 November Failed Frankish attack on Damascus
1130 February Death of Prince Bohemond II of Antioch — rule taken over by Princess Alice
1131 21 August Death of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem. Coronation of Fulk and Melisende
1134 Revolt of Count Hugh of Jaffa
1136 April Arrival of Raymond of Poitiers and his succession to the principality of Antioch
1137 Birth of Saladin
1137-38 Emperor John Comnenus of Byzantium threatens Antioch
1142-43 Second expedition of John Comnenus to Antioch. Death of John (March 1143)
1143 10 November Death of King Fulk
1144-45 Byzantine army forces Raymond of Antioch to travel to Constantinople and acknowledge Byzantine overlordship
1144 24 December Fall of Edessa to Zengi of Aleppo and Mosul
1145 1 December First issue of Quantum praedecessores, crusade appeal of Pope Eugenius III
1146 31 March Bernard of Clairvaux preaches the Second Crusade at Vezelay to King Louis VII and the French nobility
1146 14 September Death of Zengi, succeeded by Nur ad-Din
1146 September-January 1147 Bernard tours Flanders and the Rhineland recruiting men for the crusade
1146 24 December King Conrad III of Germany takes the cross
1147 May Fleet of Anglo-Norman, Flemish and Rhinelanders set out for the Holy Land via Lisbon
1147 June Armies of Conrad III and Louis VII set out for the Levant
1147 28 June Start of the siege of Lisbon
1147 July-September Wendish Crusade
1147 17 October Genoese and Catalan fleet capture Almeria in southern Spain
1147 21 October Capture of Lisbon
1147 September-October Armies of the Second Crusade at Constantinople
1147 25 October German army defeated in Asia Minor
1148 7 January Defeat of the French army at Mount Cadmus in Asia Minor
1148 March-May Louis VII at Antioch
1148 24 June Council of Palmarea decides to attack Damascus
1148 23-28 July Siege of Damascus fails
1148 July-30 December Siege and capture of Tortosa in northern Spain by crusaders from Genoa, Barcelona and southern France
1149 29 June Death of Prince Raymond of Antioch at the Battle of Inab
1149 15 July Inauguration of the new Church of the Holy Sepulchre
1150 March-May Failed attempts to launch a new crusade in France
1151-52 Struggle between Baldwin III and Melisende for control over Jerusalem
1154 April Nur ad-Din takes control of Damascus
1157-58 Crusade of Count Thierry of Flanders and the attack on Shaizar (December 1157)
1158-59 Manuel Comnenus in northern Syria
1158 September Marriage of Baldwin III and Theodora, a niece of Manuel Comnenus
1163 10 February Death of King Baldwin III
1163 18 February Coronation of King Amalric
1163 September Amalric’s first expedition to Egypt
1164 August-October Amalric’s second expedition to Egypt
1167 January-August Amalric attacks Egypt with a Pisan fleet; he captures but then concedes Alexandria
1167 29 August Marriage of Amalric and Maria, grand-niece of Manuel Comnenus
1168 Construction of the concentric castle at Belvoir by the Hospitallers
1168 October-January 1169 Amalric’s fourth expedition to Egypt; Nur ad-Din takes control of Egypt
1169 October-December Amalric’s fifth expedition to Egypt
1169-71 Mission of Archbishop Frederick of Tyre to the West; he visits King Louis VII and King Henry II of England
1169 29 July Papal appeal Inter omnia of Pope Alexander III
1170-c. 1184 Composition of Historia of William of Tyre
1171 Amalric visits Constantinople and swears homage to Manuel Comnenus
1174 15 May Death of Nur ad-Din
1174 11 July Death of Amalric; succession of Baldwin IV
1174 November Saladin takes control of Damascus
1176 17 September Manuel Comnenus is defeated by Seljuk Turks at the Battle of Myriocephalum
1177 25 November Battle of Mont Gisard — Saladin is defeated
1177-78 Crusade of Count Philip of Flanders
1178-79 Construction of the castle of Jacob’s Ford; it is taken by Saladin in August 1179
1180 April Marriage of Guy of Lusignan and Sibylla
1180 24 September Death of Manuel Comnenus
1181 January Papal appeal of Cum orientalis terrae of Pope Alexander III
1182 December-February 1183 Reynald of Chatillon’s expedition to the Red Sea and attack on Medina
1183 February General tax enacted in th
e kingdom of Jerusalem
1183 12 June Saladin takes control of Aleppo
1183 September-October Saladin invades — the Franks shadow him and the Muslims retreat
1183 October Removal of Guy of Lusignan from the regency
1184-85 Mission of Patriarch Heraclius and the masters of the Templars and Hospitallers to the West
1185 May Death of King Baldwin IV; regency of Count Raymond III of Tripoli
1186 May-September Death of King Baldwin V (precise date unknown)
1186 September Coronation of Guy and Sibylla
1187 January Reynald of Chatillon attacks a Muslim caravan in Transjordan
1187 1 May Battle of Cresson
1187 1 July Saladin invades the kingdom of Jerusalem
1187 2 July Saladin lays siege to Tiberias; King Guy decides to march to Tiberias
1187 4 July Battle of Hattin
1187 August Arrival of Conrad of Montferrat at Tyre
1187 July-November Saladin moves through the kingdom of Jerusalem taking towns and castles
1187 October Fall of Jerusalem
1187 October-November Audita tremendi issued by Pope Gregory VIII — a call for the Third Crusade
1188-90 Crusade preparations in western Europe
1189 King Guy lays siege to Acre
1189 May Emperor Frederick Barbarossa sets out on crusade
1189 July-May 1190 Frederick moves successfully through the Byzantine Empire and also defeats Seljuk Turks of Iconium (May 1190)
1190 10 June Death of Frederick at Silifke in Asia Minor
1190 July Richard the Lionheart and Philip II Augustus of France set out for the East
1190 September-April 1191 Richard and Philip winter in Sicily
1191 May Richard captures Cyprus
1191 12 July Capture of Acre by crusaders and settlers
1191 3 August Philip returns to France
1191 7 September Battle of Arsuf
1191 October-January 1192 March to Jerusalem — crusaders turn back
1192 April King Guy steps down from throne of Jerusalem, but is given Cyprus by King Richard
1192 28 April Murder of Conrad of Montferrat
1192 May Henry of Champagne is crowned king of Jerusalem
1192 June Second march on Jerusalem fails
1192 5 August Battle of Jaffa — Richard defeats Saladin
1192 2 September Truce is arranged between Richard and Saladin
1192 9 October Richard leaves for home
1193 4 March Death of Saladin
1194 December Death of Guy of Lusignan, ruler of Cyprus