Gama, Vasco da, 54
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Étienne, 171–72
geology, 163–64
Germany, Quedlinburg unicorn, 35–39, 106
Gessner, Konrad, 29
Geuricke, Otto von, 35–36
Gharnati, Abu Hamid al-, 45
giants
Boccaccio’s giant, 12–13, 32–33
cultural interpretations of, 9–10
debate on existence of, 15–19, 26–29, 34
Druon Antigoon of Antwerp, 16
from elephant-like bones, 12–13
fate of bones, in Medieval and Renaissance Europe, 7
Field of Giants, Dauphiné Province, France, 1
Habicot on existence of, 8–9
losing stature in scientific debates, 102
in Mexico, 132, 133
in North America, 135
overview, 129–30
Peiresc proves teeth of giants are from elephants, 31–33
in Sicily, 12–13
as sign of man’s loss of vitality, 9–12, 15
See also Theutobochus, King of Teutons
Gigantologie: Histoire de la Grandeure des Geants (Gigantologie: The history of the Greatness of Giants) (Riolan), 27–28
Gigantomachie pour respondre à la Gigantostologie (Gigantomachie, a response to Gygantosteologie) (Riolan), 17–19
Ginsburg, Léonard, 7, 33
Gist, Christopher, 144, 145–46
Gmelin, Johann Georg, 123, 125–28, 154–55, 156, 158–59
Golovkin, Count Yuri, 184, 186
Gordon, Harry, 149–50
Gorp, Jan van (Joannes Goropius Becanus), 15–17, 90
Grammatica Russica (Ludolf), 78–79
Greece, 20–22, 23, 27
Greeks and giants, 9–10
Grote Mandrenke (Great Drowning of Men), 4
Guettard, Jean-Étienne, 142
Guillemeau, Charles, 26
Gygantosteologie (Speech on the Bones of a Giant) pamphlet (Habicot), 8–9
H
Habicot, Nicolas
Gygantosteologie pamphlet on giants, 8–9
and Lucerne giant, Theutobochus, 15, 26–27, 28–29
Riolan’s attacks on, 17–18, 19
Handbuch (Blumenbach), 174
Handbuch der Naturgeschichte (Handbook of Natural History) (Linné), 170
Herberstein, Sigismund von, 56–57
Hesiod, 9–10
hippopotamuses, 91
Historiae animalium (Gessner), 29
Historica Aethiopica (Ludolf), 91
Hooke, Robert, 79
Hudson Valley, New York, 134–35
human beings
awareness of mammoths, xiii
elephants’ role in human development, 206–7
giants as sign of man’s loss of vitality, 9–12, 15
See also biblical references
Hung Hao, 48
Hunter, William, 151–52
Hutchinson, Henry Neville, ix
I
ichthyosaur, xii
Ides, Evert Ysbrants, 74–77, 81
India and unicorn lore, 21–22
Ingles, Mary Draper, 144–45
inundations of the sea and story of Theutobochus, 4
Ireland, elephant teeth found in, 116
Irkutsk, Siberia, 159–61
Ivan IV of Russia, 61–63
Ivan V, Miloslavski co-tsar of Russia, 66–67, 70–71, 79
ivory
differentiating mammoth ivory from walrus ivory, 50–51, 55, 57–58
fossil ivory, 20–21, 37, 154–55
knife hafts from, 44–45, 57
mammoth ivory trade in Russia, 64–65
from narwhal, 23, 48, 58, 95, 126
Norse trade in the White Sea, 42–44, 49
in Siberia, 41, 42–44, 45–48, 49, 64, 82–83, 156, 157
from walruses, 42–43, 44–45, 48, 54–55, 56
See also trade
J
James, Richard, 50
Japan and Russian diplomatic and mapping expedition, 185
Jefferson, Thomas, 167, 168–69
journals. See academic journals
K
Kagg, Baron Leonard, 89–90, 92
Karli of Hålogaland, 43–44
Karsten, Karl
Kircher, Athanasius, 15
Klaproth, Julius, 188, 196
Kotzebue, Otto von, 185
Krems bones, Austria, 33–35
Krusenstern, Adam, 182–87
L
Lambeck, Peter, 34
Lange, Lorenz, 120
Langon, Marquis Nicolas de, 1–3, 6–7, 8, 28–29, 32–33, 206. See also Theutobochus, King of Teutons
Langsdorff, Grigory, 185
Lartet, Édouard, 205–6
Laufer, Berthold, 48
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm von, 37–38, 65–66, 105–6, 107–9, 169
Lery, Joseph-Gaspard Chaussegros de, 139–40
Lesdiguieres, Marshal (François de Bonne), 1–3, 7, 29
L’imposture descouverte des os humains supposés, et faussement attribués au Roy Theutobochus (The fraudulent discovery of alleged human bones . . .) (Riolan), 19, 28
Linné, Karl (Carolus Linnaeus), 99–100, 169
Linnean system of cataloging specimens, 169–70, 174
Logan, Josias, 50–51
Longueuil, Charles Le Moyne de, 139–43, 146
Lorraine, Claude de, 31
Lotichius, Johann Peter, 34
Lucerne giant. See Theutobochus, King of Teutons
Lucretius, 10
Ludolf, Heinrich Wilhelm, 77–78
Ludolf, Hiob, 77, 91
Ludwig, Duke Eberhard, 114
Luján bones, 172–74
M
Maggi, Girolamo (Hieronymus Magius), 15
Magliabechi, Antonio, 106–7
Magnus, Bishop Olaus, 55–56
Malta, dwarf elephant discovered on, 12–13
mammoth and mastodon bones
cultural interpretations of, xiii
Darwin’s find in Argentina, ix–x
elephant-like nature of, x–xi
See also fossils
mammoths
and China, 46–48
Dauphine map, 53
Desceliers’s map, 52–53, 56–57
dwarf mammoth of Sardinia, 13
establishing as a distinct species, 197–98
etymology of, 51–52
human awareness of, xiii
ivory tusks in northern Asia, 45
Kagg’s drawing and description, 89–90
Krems bones, Austria, 33–35
Linné on, 99–100
Ludolf on, 78–79
Müller’s description of, 88
perfect skull found, 121–22
Peter II’s interest in, 80
Quedlinburg unicorn similarities, 38
representations of, in cave drawings and images, 206
role in development of vertebrate paleontology, xi–xii
Royal Swedish Literary and Scientific Society on, 89–94
Russian government offering a bounty for reports of, 200
in Siberia, 41, 49–50, 51–54, 75–77, 79, 86–87
Sloane on, 117–18
species and genus, 205
Strahlenberg on, 95–97
Tatischev on, 98–99
trade in ivory, 57–58
tusk presented to Sloane in London, 117
Waldseemüller’s map, 53–54
Witsen on, 72–73, 74, 81, 83–84
in Yugria, Russia, 49, 57
See also Adams mammoth
Mandeville, Philippe, 141
Mansi peoples, Siberia, 49–50, 57
maps
Dauphine map, 53
diplomatic and mapping expedition to Japan, 185
Magnus’s, 55–56
Strahlenberg’s, of Siberia and Central Asia, 92–93
Witsen’s map of northern Asia, or Tartary, 70–71, 7
2, 75
Marina, Andrea, 24–25
Marius, Gaius, 4–5
Martin, Peter, 89, 91
mastodons
in North America, 161–62
in Tlaxcala, Mexico, 132
Mather, Cotton, 135–37
Maydell, Gerhard von, 200–201
Mäyern, Johann, 36–37
Mayor, Adrienne, 132
Mazurier, Pierre (a.k.a. Mazuyer), 2–9, 17, 26, 28–29
medicine
ivory and Chinese, 47
medical professionals in 1600s, 18–19
unicorn horns/alicorns as, 24, 103
Megasthenes, 21–22
Merian, Matthew, 34
Mertrud, Jean-Claude, 171
Messerschmidt, Daniel Gottlieb, 93, 121–22, 123–25, 174
Mexico, 131–34
Michaelis, Christian Friedrich, 162–63
Middendorff, Alexander, 157
Middle Eastern Muslims on trade from Bulgaria, 44–45
Miechowa, Maciej z, 56, 57–58
Ming i pieh tu (T’ao Hung-king), 46
Molyneus, Thomas, 115
Montaliche Unterredungen (journal), 103–4, 107
Mordvinov, Nikolai, 183
Morgan, George, 162
Morgan, John, 162
Moscow, Russia, 60, 82
Moustakh, Siberia, 201
Mullen, Alan, 40, 103–4, 129
Müller, Gerhard Friedrich, 71, 156, 157–58
Müller, Johann Bernhard, 155
Muqaddasi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-, 44
N
narwhal ivory, 23, 48, 58, 95, 126
Natural and Moral History of the Indies (Acosta), 134
Natural History (Buffon), 148, 164, 167–68
Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (Catesby), 137–38
Newton, Sir Isaac, 117
Nivolet, Dr., 32
Noord en Oost Tartarye (Northern and Eastern Tartary) (Witsen), 72, 83–84
Nord-und Ostlische Theil von Europa und Asia, Das (Strahlenberg), 94–97
Norse trade in the White Sea, 42–44, 49
North America
giants in, 135
Hudson Valley, New York, 134–35
Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (Catesby), 137–38
Novgorod, Russia, 49–50
Novitsky, Grigory, 87
O
Odyssey (Homer), 12, 13
“Of Fossile Teeth and Bones of Elephants” (Sloane), 118–19
Ohio bones and teeth, 139–41, 146–52
Ohthere (Viking), 42–44
Olaf, St., 43–44
Oldenburg, Henry, 113
Olmos, Juan de, 132
On Stones (Theophrastus), 20
Origins Antwerpianae (Gorp), 16
Orosius, Paulus, 4, 6, 42
Osborn, Charles, 205
Ottoman Turks, 62
P
pagan ritual bones, Cannstatt in Württemberg, Germany, 114–15
paleontology, xi–xii, 206
Pallas, Peter Simon, 158–61, 163–64, 196
Pansner, Lorenz, 188
Paraguay skeleton, 172
Paré, Ambroise, 25–26
Peale, Charles Willson, 162
Peiresc, Nicolas Claude Fabri de, 30–33
Pen-tsao Shi-I (Ch’en Ts’ang-k’i), 46
permafrost soils, 99, 190, 204
Persia and unicorn lore, 20–21, 22
Peter I “Peter the Great,” 66, 85, 98–99, 112, 120–23, 156–57, 191
Peter II, tsar of all Russias
and captive officers from Battle of Poltava, 86
as co-tsar with Ivan, 66–68, 69–70, 79
delegation to China after Treaty of Nerchinsk, 74–77
and exploration of Ostyaks, 87
and Ides, 77
and Ludolf, 78
visiting the west for over a year, 79–80
and Witsen’s map, 70–71
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (journal), 113–14, 115, 117, 174
Physiologus (bestiaries), 22–23, 54
Pierre, George, 31
Plater, Felix, 13–14, 15
Pliny, 10, 11, 20, 22, 70
poison panic in Middle Ages Europe, 23–24
Polyphemus, 12
Pope, Alexander, 108
Popoff, Mr., 188, 191
Protogaea, or A Dissertation on the Original Aspect of the Earth . . . (Leibniz and Seeländer), 37–38, 65
Pustozersk, Ural Mountains, Russia, 50–51
Q
Quedlinburg unicorn, Germany, 35–39, 106
R
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 16–17
Ray, John, 109
Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles de quadrupèdes (Researches into the bones of fossil quadrupeds) (Cuvier), 175–76, 195
Rehmann, Joseph, 188
Reisel, Solomon, 114
Remezov, Semyon Ulianovich “Remessow,” 96
Republic of Letters, 30, 79
Reydan, Switzerland, 14–15
Rezanov, Nikolai, 185
rhinoceros, 38, 160–61
Riolan, Jean, 17–19, 20, 26–28, 29, 39
Romanov, Tsar Michael, 50
Roman Republic, 15
and story of Theutobochus, 4–6
Royal Philosophical Society, London, 40
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, 111–22, 129–30, 134–37, 150–51
Royal Swedish Literary and Scientific Society, 89–94, 97, 98–100
Rudbeck, Olaus, 89–91
Rumiantsev, Nicolai, 183
Russia
delegation to China after Treaty of Nerchinsk, 74–77
diplomatic and mapping expedition to Japan, 185
expanding trading partnership with China, 182–85, 186–87
Ivan IV, 61–63
ivory in Eastern Russia, x–xi
Mongol invasion, 49
power struggle at death of Ivan IV, 66–67
Tartary (northern Asia), 70–71, 72, 75, 83–84
trade with China, 45–49
Witsen’s fascination with, 59–60
See also Siberia
Russian Imperial Academy, 112, 157
S
Sacred History of the Earth (Burnet), 73–74
Schnetter, Johann Christoph, 102–3
Seeländer, Nikolaus, 37–38
Seven Years War, 143
Shawnee nation, 144, 145
Shelburne, Lord, 150, 152
Shen i king (So Tung-fang), 46–47
Shumachov, Ossip, 177–80, 189, 200
Siberia
challenges with delivery of supplies, 68
ivory in, 41, 42–44, 45–48, 49, 64, 82–83, 156, 157
mammoths in, 41, 49–50, 51–54, 75–77, 79, 86–87
Siberian Prikaz and Ivan IV, 60–64
Strahlenberg’s knowledge about, 92, 93–94
theories of elephants in, 73–74
Ural Mountains/Yugria, 49, 57
See also Adams mammoth, Bykovski Peninsula, Siberia
Sicily, 12–13
skulls, fragility of, x, 2, 33–34
Sloane, Sir Hans, 116–19, 129
Smith, Robert, 144
societies
American Philosophical Society, 141–42
Royal Philosophical Society, London, 40
Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, 111–22, 129–30, 134–37, 150–51
Royal Swedish Literary and Scientific Society, 89–94, 97, 98–100
Sophia, Miloslavski regent of co-tsars Ivan and Peter of Russia, 67–69, 70–71, 82
So Tung-fang, 46–47
Steensen, Niels “Steno,” 106–7, 109–11, 136
Steller, Georg Wilhelm, 127–28, 156
Stiernheilm, Georg, 90
Strahlenberg, Peter, 92
Strahlenberg, Philipp Johann (Tabbert), 91, 92–97,
121, 122–24
Stroganov, Grigori, 62–63
Stroganov, Yakov, 62–63
Sweden
Battle of Poltava, 85–86
belief that Swedish was the oroginal language, 90
Tatischev in, 97–99
and Thirty Years War in Austria, 33–34
Swinger, Theodore, 15
Switzerland, 13–15
T
Tabbert von Strahlenberg, Philipp Johann, 91, 92–97, 121, 122–24
T’ao Hung-king, 46
Tartary (northern Asia), 70–71, 72, 75, 83–84
Tatishchev, Vassili, 97–99, 119
Tentzel, Wilhelm Ernst, 65, 101–8, 111–19
Theatrum Europaeum (journal), 34
Theophrastus, 20
Theutobochus, King of Teutons (Lucerne giant)
Boch drawings/reconstruction, 14–15
bones on display in France, 7–8
discovery of, 14
Guillemeau on, 26
Habicot on, 8–9, 26–27, 28–29
labeled as elephant by Peiresc, 32
as mastodon, 33
Riolan on, 17–18, 19, 39
story of, 3–7
“tomb” of, 6–7, 8
Thirty Years War, 33–34
Thorir the Hound, 43–44
Tilesius, Wilhelm Gottlieb, 185–86, 191–94, 195–99
Timofeyevich, Vasily “Yermak,” 62–63
Tissot, Jacques, 3–7
Tlaxcala, Mexico, 131–34
Tobolsk, Siberia, 75, 86–87, 92–94, 128, 156
Tonna bones, near Erfurt in Thuringia, Germany, 102–8
trade
furs from Alaska, 182–83
fur trade and development of the Russian state, 61–64
Novgorodians with Mansi, 49–50
between Russia and China, 69–70, 156, 182–85, 186–87
in walrus and mammoth ivory, 57–58
Treaty of Nerchinsk, 69, 74–75
Treaty of Nystad, 86–87, 88
Treaty of Paris, 143
“True history of the life, death, and bones of Giant Theutobochus...” (Tissot), 3–7
Two Sarmatias, The (Miechowa), 57
U
unicorns (monoceros)
alicorn horns, 23–26
Ctesias of Cnidus on, 20–21, 22, 23
debate on reality of, 24–26
fossil ivory as indication of, 20, 102–3
Guericke on skeleton of, 35–36
Megasthenes on cartazons, 21–22
mercenaries and scams, 23–24, 25
overview, 22
Physiologus (bestiaries) on, 22–23
Quedlinburg unicorn, Germany, 35–39, 106
Tonna bones as unicornu fossili, 102–8
types of, 36
V
Valentini, Michael Bernard, 36
Valkendorf, Bishop Erik, 55
vertebrate paleontology
Mammoth’s role in development of, xi–xii
Vor der Südfluth! (Before the Deluge) (Fraas), 38
W
Waldseemüller, Martin, 53–54, 56
Waldseemüller’s map, 53–54
walruses, 42–43, 44–45, 48, 53–58, 83, 83