Dionysiac cults.
ONESICRITUS OF ASTYPALAEA: helmsman of Alexander’s royal galley; later wrote a work
called The Education of Alexander, a history of Alexander.
ORXINES: Persian nobleman; traced his descent from the great Persian King Cyrus; wealth was
partly inherited and also had been amassed during the long period when he had served as a satrap;
indicted and convicted of robbing royal temples and of illegally putting many Persians to death;
executed by Alexander’s command.
OXYARTES: Bactrian nobleman; captured by Alexander at the Rock of Sogdiana; his daughter
Roxane married Alexander in the spring of 327 B.C.E.
PARMENIO: Philip’s best general; led expeditionary force to Asia in 336 B.C.E. Commanded the left
wing of the army at Granicus, Issos, and Gaugamela; assassinated in 330 B.C.E. by Alexander’s
command after his son Philotas was found guilty of committing treason.
PARYSATIS: the youngest daughter of the Persian king Artaxerxes III Ochus (359–338 B.C.E.);
Alexander married her in Susa in 324 B.C.E.
PAUSANIAS, SON OF KERASTOS: from Orestis in Macedon; assassin of Philip II, in revenge for
his gang rape by the muleteers of Attalus.
PERDICCAS, SON OF ORONTES: from Orestis in Macedon, commander of a brigade in the
infantry; became one of Alexander’s bodyguards by 330 B.C.E. After the death of Hephaestion became
cavalry commander of the first hipparchy of the Companion cavalry; received Alexander’s signet ring
from Alexander at his death.
PEUCESTAS, SON OF ALEXANDER (NOT ALEXANDER III): from Mieza in Macedon; wounded
protecting Alexander after Alexander himself was wounded fighting inside the Mallian town; became
Alexander’s bodyguard; later satrap of Persis.
PHILIP OF ACARNANIA: Alexander’s doctor; cured Alexander when he became ill after swimming
in the freezing-cold waters of the Cydnus River.
PHILIP II OF MACEDON: born c. 382 B.C.E.; became regent for Amyntas IV in 359; architect of
Macedon’s first-rate army; father of Alexander III (the Great); defeated Greeks at Chaeronea in 338 ;
declared leader of war of revenge against Persia at Corinth in the summer of 337; assassinated in the
autumn of 336 B.C.E.
PHILOTAS: son of Parmenio, commanded Companion cavalry during the early years of Alexander’s
campaigns in Asia; executed in 330 B.C.E. after failing to report a plot against Alexander’s life.
PIXODARUS: Persian governor of Caria, 341–336 B.C.E.; offered his eldest daughter to wed Philip
Arrhidaeus, son of Philip II and Philinna of Larissa. Marriage undermined by intervention of
Alexander, who offered himself as the groom instead.
L. MESTRIUS PLUTARCHOS (PLUTARCH): born probably before 50 C.E. and died after 120;
wrote twenty-three parallel lives of famous Greeks and Romans, pairing life of Alexander with that of
Julius Caesar.
POLYDAMAS: Parmenio’s dispatch rider at the battle of Gaugamela; later played a crucial role in
the assassination of Parmenio.
POLYPERCHON, SON OF SIMMIAS, TYMPHAIAN: born c. 390 or 380 B.C.E.; infantry
commander; made fun of one of the Persians who performed prostration in front of Alexander.
PORUS: towering Indian king; Alexander’s opponent at the battle of the Hydaspes in May or June 326
B.C.E. After defeat became an important ally of Alexander’s.
PROTEAS: nephew of Cleitus the Black; heavy drinker; probably was present at Alexander’s final,
fatal dinner party.
PROTESILAUS: Greek hero who led the Thessalian contingent to Troy. In book 2 of the Iliad Homer
tells us that Protesilaus had been brought down first by a Dardan spear. Alexander sacrificed at his
tomb in Elaeus.
PSAMMON: philosopher in Memphis with whom Alexander may have had a philosophical exchange
about Zeus being the father of all mankind and his preference (according to Alexander) for the best.
PTOLEMY I OF EORDAIA (IN MACEDON): Alexander’s bodyguard, later satrap, founder of
Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt; much later wrote history of Alexander’s reign.
PYTHONICE: Athenian courtesan; most dazzling courtesan of her day; mistress of Harpalus; lived
with Harpalus in Babylon; when she died, she was given a magnificent funeral and a costly monument
of the Attic type.
ROXANE: “Little Star”; daughter of Bactrian nobleman Oxyartes; Alexander’s first wife, married in
the spring of 327 B.C.E. Her child with Alexander (Alexander IV) was born after Alexander’s death.
SATIBARZANES: made satrap of Areians by Alexander; later revolted; killed by Erigyius in the
spring of 329 B.C.E.
SEMIRAMIS: legendary Assyrian queen with whom Alexander had a rivalry; she too had crossed the
deserts of Gedrosia coming back from her conquests of India.
SISYGAMBIS: mother of Darius III; taken captive after the battle of Issos; treated with great respect
by Alexander; Alexander later gave to her the title of his “mother,” and gave her lessons in Greek.
SITALCES, SON OF KERSOBLEPTES: prince of royal house of Odrysia; commander of Thracian
javelin men; played key role in execution of Parmenio in autumn of 330 B.C.E.; in 324 B.C.E. executed
for maladministration and crimes against natives.
SPITAMENES: Sogdian warlord; handed over Bessus to Alexander but then rose in rebellion;
defeated Andromachus, Menedemus, Caranus, and Pharnuches at the river Polytimetus; killed by his
own wife or his own allies, the Massagetae.
STRABO OF AMASEIA: born c. 64 B.C.E., survived until after 21 C.E.; book 15 of Strabo’s
Geographia supplies valuable geographical and ethnographic information about Alexander’s
campaigns, especially in India; based upon Nearchus, Megasthenes, and Onesicritus.
TAXILES/MOPHIS: ruler of Taxila who entertained Alexander, giving Alexander many gifts, for
which he received in turn 1,000 talents from the booty Alexander was carrying, plus large quantities
of gold and silver dinnerware, Persian clothing, and thirty horses from his own stable, together with
their trappings.
THAIS: Athenian courtesan; allegedly inspired Alexander to burn the palace complex of the Persian
kings; later mistress of Ptolemy.
THALESTRIS (OR MINYTHYIA), THE QUEEN OF THE AMAZONS: traveled thirty-five days to
conceive a child with Alexander.
XERXES (reigned 486–465 B.C.E.): Persian king, built palaces in Persepolis; directed the capture and
sacking of Athens in 480 B.C.E., including the destruction of the temples on the Athenian acropolis;
driven from Greece after defeat of his navy at the battle of Salamis.
Rulers of Persia and Macedon
Kings of Persia from the seventh century until the death of Darius III (all dates are B.C.E.). Based on
the splendid work of A. Kuhrt, The Ancient Near East c. 3000–330 BC, volumes 1 and 2 (London,
1995).
Teispes
650–620
Cyrus I
620–590
Cambyses I
590–559
Cyrus II (the Great) 559–530
Cambyses II
530–522
Bardiya
522
Darius I
522–486
Xerxes
486–465
Artaxerxes I
465–423
Darius II
423–405
Artaxerxes II
Artaxerxes III
359–338
Artaxerxes
IV
338–336
Darius III
336–330
The Argead kings of the Macedonians from the early fifth century B.C.E. through the reign of Alexander
III (the Great). Based on the exemplary work of E. Borza, In the Shadow of Olympus (Princeton,
1990), p. xviii.
Amyntas I
498/7
Alexander I
498/7–454
Perdiccas II
454–413
Archelaus
413–399
Orestes
399–398/7
Aeropus II
399–395/4
Amyntas II
395/4
Pausanias
394/3
Amyntas III
393–370/69
Alexander II
370/69–367
Ptolemy
367–365
Perdiccas III
365–360/59
Philip II
360/59–336
Alexander III 336–323
Chronology
1187
Capture of Troy
B.C.E.
559–530
Reign of Cyrus II, the Great
499–494
Revolt of Ionian Greeks
490
September
Persian defeat at Marathon
Destruction of the temples on the acropolis of Athens;
480
September
Persian defeat at Salamis
479
Persian defeat at Plataea
450
Peace of Kallias
431–404
Peloponnesian War
387/6
“King’s Peace”
382
Birth of Philip II
380
Panegyricus of Isocrates
371
July
Battle of Leuctra
369–367
Philip II hostage in Thebes
362
Battle of Mantinea
360/59
Death of Perdiccas III (brother of Philip II)
356
20 July
Birth of Alexander
346
Isocrates’ letter To Philip
338
August
Battle of Chaeronea
336
spring
Macedonian Expeditionary force crosses Hellespont
336
October
Assassination of Philip II
334
late spring
Battle of the Granicus River
334
early summer Alexander in Ephesos
334
summer
Capture of Miletos
334
summer
Siege of Halicarnassus
334/3
winter
Alexander’s campaigns in Caria, Lycia, Pamphylia, Phrygia
333
spring
Memnon’s naval offensive
333
spring/summer Alexander in Gordium, campaigns in area
late summer
Alexander into Cilicia
333
end of summer Alexander in Tarsus
333
September
Darius in the Amik Plain
333
November
Battle of Issos
332
January–July Siege of Tyre
Sept.–
332
Siege of Gaza
November
331
late winter
Alexander’s visit to Siwah
331
April 7
Inauguration of Alexandria
331
spring
Alexander in Memphis
331
April
Alexander leaves Memphis
9 P.M., Sept.
331
Eclipse of moon after Alexander crosses Tigris
20
331
October 1
Battle of Gaugamela
331
end of Nov.
Alexander leaves Babylon
331
end of Dec.
Alexander leaves Susa
330
Jan.–May
Alexander in Persepolis
330
July
Death of Darius
330
August
Alexander in Zadracarta
330
October
Dimnus conspiracy
330
autumn
Deaths of Philotas and Parmenio
329
March
Alexander in Helmand Valley (Afghanistan)
329
spring
Death of Satibarzanes
329
spring
Alexander crosses Hindu Kush
329
summer
Capture of Bessus
329
autumn
Revolts of Sogdians, Bactrians
329
winter
Alexander in Bactra
spring–
328
Campaigns in Sogdia, Bactria
summer
328
summer
Capture of Rock of Sogdiana
328
autumn
Death of Cleitus in Maracanda
328/7
winter
Army rests in Nautaca (Karshi)
327
spring
End of Sogdian revolt
327
spring
Alexander marries Roxane
327
late spring
Alexander introduces proskynesis
327
late spring
The conspiracy of the pages
327
spring/summer Macedonians across Hindu Kush
327/6
winter
Hephaestion to Indus; campaigns in Swat
326
late winter
Capture of Aornus
326
spring
Army reassembles at Indus
326
May/June
Battle of the Hydaspes
summer
326
Alexander at Chenab
solstice
326
summer
Mutiny at the Hyphasis
326
late summer
Alexander back at Hydaspes
326
August
Death of Coenus
early
326
Alexander begins journey down Hydaspes
November
326/5
winter
Alexander wounded in Mallian town
325
July
Alexander in Pattala
325
late August
Alexander leaves Pattala
325
early October Alexander leaves Oreitai
early
325
Nearchus sets sail along south coast
November
325
December
Nearchus arrives in Salmus
325
late December Alexander leaves Carmania
Alexander back in Susa; mass marriage ceremony; paying
324
March
off of debts; arrival of Successors
324
midsummer
Alexander at Opis
324
summer
Mutiny and banquet at Opis
324
August 4
Decree about exiles announced at Olympia
324
October
Death of Hephaestion in Ecbatana
; 323
early in year
Alexander leaves Ecbatana
323
spring
Alexander back in Babylon
323
late May
Alexander falls ill
323
June 10
Death of Alexander
PART ONE
“Alexander, Son of Philip, and the Greeks”
CHAPTER 1
The Blood of Heroes
PREDICTIVE PRECOCITY
When Ludwig van Beethoven was eleven years old, he composed some piano pieces too difficult to
play with his small hands. His music teacher was said to have remarked, “Why, you can’t play that,
Ludwig.” To which the boy replied, “I will when I am bigger.”
History is full of the notable quotes and feats of precocious geniuses. The common thread of such
stories is that they foreshadow the great deeds to come. Of course young Beethoven knew that
someday he would be able to play the most difficult works for piano; after all, he was Beethoven!
Many such stories were told about Alexander the Great. Most can be found in the first ten chapters
of Plutarch’s biography. Plutarch relays them to suggest Alexander’s future invincibility; his vehement
nature (barely controlled by his self-discipline); his self-possession; his confidence; and his wit. The
adult Alexander was famous for all of these. It would be a mistake, however, to forget some salient
facts about his background and upbringing as we read through Plutarch’s delightful litany of youthful
triumphs.
Alexander was a prince, with the blood of some of Greece’s greatest heroes (real and mythical)
flowing through his veins from both sides of his family tree. Moreover, this young prince did not grow
up among “barbarians,” as some ancient writers have intimated, but at a wealthy, sophisticated royal
court filled with great painters, writers, diplomats, and soldiers. He also received the finest education
possible. Unless we keep these facts in mind we can never understand how Alexander, the
Macedonian prince, eventually became the king of Asia and a god.
THE BLOOD OF HEROES
Alexander’s mother, Olympias, was a princess of the royal house of Molossia in Epirus
(northwestern Greece). Molossos, after whom the royal house was named, was supposedly the son of
Andromache and Neoptolemus. It was Neoptolemus who had slain King Priam at the altar of Zeus
Herkeios (“of the Household”) during the sack of Troy. He also happened to be the son of Achilles.
On his mother’s side, Alexander was thus a blood descendant of the flawed hero of the Iliad and his
savage son. To Alexander, the significance of his descent from the heroes of Greece’s epic past was
not a matter of passive identification with ancient history; the past was alive, and Alexander was part