And an unwritable piece of speech
Anthony Trollope describes a character in Ralph the Heir as having ‘a soft, greasy voice, made up of pretence, politeness and saliva’. It is a splendid verbal picture, but it is not easy to decide exactly what type of voice is being described. Voice types defy precise verbal description.
of a religious tradition). Because of its formality, it is more likely to be used to provide the standard which society values. Our speech is frequently judged by the standards of the written language – and found wanting.
Group identities
The ‘variety’ of the English language encompasses all social situations. As soon as people come into regular contact with each other, the language they use is likely to develop features which reflect the bonds that exist between them, and which distinguish them from other social groups. When they need to write to each other or to outsiders, they may make use of special notepaper (if they can afford it), or a distinctive typography. When speaking, they may develop their own style of pronunciation. In both spoken and written language, there will emerge special vocabulary and grammatical constructions. In particular, they will develop their own slang. ‘The chief use of slang’, it has been said, ‘is to show that you’re one of the gang.’ The point applies with equal force to families, schools, local clubs and societies, sports and games, jobs and professions, religious bodies, or any other context in which people come together. ‘Gang’ applies not only to youths on street corners, but to teachers, footballers, doctors, lawyers, the clergy – everyone. We all belong to a number of different ‘gangs’, and have learned the distinctive language of each of them.
The more a group of people are given the status of a social institution within a community, the more distinctive their language is likely to be. The most idiosyncratic varieties of English are those associated with the church and the law. In their traditional uses, both religious and legal English rely on archaic vocabulary and grammar, a wide range of special locutions, special tones of voice (in church services and courtrooms), and a distinctive written style (as in religious orders of service, or legal documents). Other well-recognized varieties of English include the language of government (Acts of Parliament, Civil Service prose), science, medicine, advertising, broadcasting and journalism. ‘Domestic’ varieties are also readily distinguishable, as seen in the language of recipes, instruction leaflets, and knitting patterns. Technology-influenced varieties – and especially the Internet – are an increasingly important domain (Chapter 8).
The best adjectives
In a study of the vocabulary used in television advertising, Geoffrey Leech found that the twenty most common adjectives, in order of frequency, were the following:
new
good/better/best
free
fresh
delicious
full
sure
clean
wonderful
special
crisp
fine
big
great
real
easy
bright
extra
safe
rich
No other language variety gives such prominence to ‘positive’ adjectives of this kind, to the exclusion of their ‘negative’ or ‘neutral’ counterparts (old, bad, ordinary, etc.).
Within each category, there may be many ‘sub-varieties’. For instance, there are several styles of advertising, such as the difference between the ‘hard sell’ and the ‘soft sell’ approaches to marketing a product. The different domains of science and technology have their own vocabulary and conventions of presentation, and often display interesting grammatical differences. Journalism provides us with the distinction between the ‘quality’ press and the ‘tabloids’. And within these sub-varieties there may be further distinctions – the style of individual newspapers or magazines, such as the Daily Mail or the Sun.
When writing a grammar or dictionary, it is easy to forget about the linguistic idiosyncrasies of the different varieties of English, and concentrate only on the ‘common core’ of words and structures which they contain. But this is to miss out a great deal of what makes the language real and dynamic. The abbreviated syntax of knitting patterns or cookery recipes is just as much a part of English as is the complex prose of a monograph or a formal speech. The news reporter who leaves out verbs (Now over to John Brown in Birmingham) is a long way from the legal draftsman who uses two or three verbs for the same meaning (have and hold, made and signed), but for both their language is shaped by their circumstances – the need for economical expression in the first case; the need to include different nuances of meaning in the second. There are vast differences in the range and organization of the many varieties of English. A small selection is illustrated in the remaining pages of this chapter.
The variety of English
A common exercise in stylistic analysis is to look at a sample of language, note its main linguistic features, and work out from these the kind of situation in which it would have been used. The answer is usually clear, even if the subject-matter clues are removed. For example, O — the — of —, who hast — thine —… could only be traditional religious English.
O God the King of Glory, who hast exalted thine only Son Jesus Christ with great triumph unto thy kingdom in heaven, we beseech thee leave us not comfortless, but send to us thine Holy Ghost to comfort us, and exalt us into the same place, whither our Saviour Christ is gone before, who liveth and reigneth with thee and the Holy Ghost, one God, world without end, Amen. (Prayer)
Using No. 7 needles, cast on 45 sts. Work 6 rows in moss stitch (every row *K.1, P.1, rep. from * to last st., K.1). Proceed in lace and moss stitch patt. with moss stitch border as follows: 1st row (K.1, P.1) twice, *K.1, w.f., K.3, w.f., sl.i, K.1, p.s.s.o., K.i… (Knitting pattern)
Whereas a proposal to effect with the Society an assurance on the Life Insured named in the Schedule hereto has been duly made and signed as a basis of such assurance and a declaration has been made agreeing that this policy shall be subject to the Society’s Registered Rules (which shall be deemed to form part of this policy) to the Table of Insurance printed hereon and to the terms and conditions of the said Table… (Life insurance proposal)
The photolytic decomposition of phenylazotriphenylmethane in benzene apparently follows a similar course to the pyrolytic decomposition discussed above. It has been investigated by Horner and Naumann (1954) and Huisgen and Nakaten (1954), and was found to involve a primary dissociation into phenyl and triphenylmethyl radicals and nitrogen, in the manner indicated in equation (8). (Chemistry textbook)
ANGLESEY S/C cottage sips 6, col. TV, tel., no dogs. Avail. Mar., Apr., Jun. Write Box 342 for brochure. (Newspaper small ad)
The judge in the mail train robbery trial at Aylesbury has ordered round-the-clock police protection for the families of the jury, all men, when they retire to consider their verdict. When Mr Justice Edmund Davis said this in court this morning, he referred to the fact that earlier this week one of the jurors had reported an attempt at bribery. The clerk of the court had told him, he said, that the jury were now asking for assurances that there would be no kind of interference with their families while they were in retirement… (BBC radio news)
Cream together butter, sugar and beaten yolks until smooth. Heat the chocolate and water in a bowl over boiling water, stirring to a creamy consistency. Add slowly to the first mixture, then fold in stiffly beaten egg whites… (Cookery book)
And the score goes up to 34 for 2. Edrich 22. And Cowdrey out this morning, caught Burge, bowled Hawke, 10. And England now, of course, metaphorically speaking, on the back foot. The batsmen still to come, which many of you no doubt will be counting up – and some Englishmen may be glad that Jack Flavell was left out in favour of a batsman – Parfitt next, then Sharpe, then Parkes, then Titmus, Trueman, Gifford, Coldwell. Now a little fussing about someone behind the sight-screen before McKenzie bo
wls… (Radio sports commentary)
Ordinary dusting doesn’t remove sticky marks. Now Pledge turns your duster into a magnet for dust and marks. With Pledge just a wipe picks up dust and sticky marks. Leaves a real wax shine instantly. So when you dust, turn your duster into a magnet for dust and marks, with Pledge. Worth every penny, because it cleans and shines as you dust. Pledge, from Johnsons. (TV advertisement)
My government reaffirm their support for the defence of the free world, the basic concept of the Atlantic alliance, and they will continue to play their full part in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and in other organizations for collective defence. They will review defence policy to ensure, by relating our commitments and our resources, that my armed forces are able to discharge their many tasks overseas with the greatest effectiveness and economy… (Formal speech, opening of Parliament)
A more detailed look at legal language
Formal and ceremonial words and constructions are found both in written documents and in the spoken language of the courtroom: Signed, sealed and delivered You may approach the bench
Your Honour May it please the court
... the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth
Frequent use is made of common words with uncommon meanings: action = law suit presents = this legal document
hand = signature said = mentioned before
Old and Middle English words are retained, though no longer in general usage: aforesaid heretofore
thereby
forthwith thenceforth
witnesseth
There are many Latin words and phrases, only a few of which have become part of the language as a whole (e.g. alias, alibi): corpus delicti nolle prosequi
sui juris
ejusdem generis res gestae
vis major
French is the source of much legal language, though many words are now in general use (e.g. appeal, counsel, crime, plaintiff): demurrer estoppel
lien
easement fee simple
tort
There are several technical terms with precise and well understood meanings (‘terms of art’): appeal contributory
felony
injunction
bail defendant
negligence
Less precise terms and idioms, in standard use in daily legal discussion, are sometimes referred to as legal ‘argot’: alleged objection
superior court
issue of law order to show cause
without prejudice
Relatively vague words and phrases are often used deliberately, to permit a degree of flexibility in interpretation: adequate cause improper
nominal sum
as soon as possible malice
reasonable care
Effective courtroom strategies
Television courtroom dramas have brought spoken legal language to the attention of millions who have never attended court themselves. William O’Barr has analysed some of the main linguistic strategies used in court by lawyers and witnesses.
Lawyers
Vary the way in which you ask questions.
Give your own witnesses a chance to speak at length; restrict the witnesses under cross-examination to short, direct answers to specific questions.
Convey a sense of organization in your interviews of witnesses and your remarks to the jury.
Adopt different styles of questioning with different kinds of witnesses (e.g. women, the elderly, children, experts).
Remain poker-faced throughout; do not reveal surprise even when an answer is totally unexpected; save dramatic reactions for special occasions.
Rhythm and pace are important; do not bore the jury with slowness; use silence strategically.
Repetition can be useful for emphasis but it should be used with care so as not to bore the jury.
Avoid interrupting a witness, especially a responsive answer; it gives the impression you want to hide some of the facts.
Use objections sparingly; they not only call attention to the material being objected to, but also convey an impression of attempting to conceal information.
Witnesses
Vary the way in which you give answers.
Give long answers wherever possible; make the opposition lawyer stop you frequently during cross-examination, to give the impression of reluctance to have your full story heard.
Try to confuse the organization which the opposition lawyer has planned for the cross-examination.
Adopt different styles of answering questions asked by different questioners (e.g. deference to the judge, no hostile answers to the opposition lawyer).
Do not show surprise even when questions are unexpected; save dramatic reactions for special moments.
Use rhythm and pace to advantage. Upset the opposition lawyer’s pace with variations in response timing (e.g. asking Please repeat the question after an especially long or complex question).
React to a cross-examiner’s repetition of material, e.g. by saying Why do you keep asking me the same question?
Interrupt the opposition lawyer by volunteering answers, as soon as you can see the drift. This gives the impression that you are cooperative, and serves to confuse the lawyer’s style.
Blurt out relevant facts and opinions on cross-examination, even though the opposition lawyer may attempt to limit your answer. These attempts will give the impression that the lawyer is trying to conceal some of your evidence.
Trucker Talk
One of the most distinctive varieties of contemporary English is the jargon of American truck drivers using citizen band radio. The language has been widely publicized since the medium became available in 1958, especially after the success of such films as Convoy. It contains a large number of stereotyped phrases for communicating routine messages, using a special numerical code (the CB-10 system).
Some trucker jargon
affirmative yes
anklebiters children
barn garage
bear den police station
bears police
big mama a long aerial
boot rest accelerator
copy? understand?
doughnuts tyres
drain the radiator stop for the lavatory
dusting driving on hard shoulder
ears CB set
Evel Knievel motorcyclist
eyeballs headlights
five-finger discount stolen goods
grandma lane slow lane
highballing moving fast
jockey driver
lettuce paper money
lollipop signpost
mobile mattress car and caravan
motion lotion fuel
organ grinding making love
pitstop lay-by
rubber duck first convoy truck
slappers wipers
smokey on rubber police on patrol
smokey’s balloon breath test
smokey with ears police car with CB
stack exhaust
super cola beer
tags plates
wrapper car
Some of the CB-10 codes
10–1 Poor reception
10–2 Good reception
10–3 End transmission
10–4 Message understood
10–5 Relay message
10–6 Stand by
10–7 Leaving air
10–8 In service
10–9 Repeat
10–10 Monitoring without transmitting
10–11 Transmitting too fast
10–12 Visitors present
10–3 Request for weather/road conditions
10–16 Make collection at
10–17 Urgent
10–18 Anything for me?
10–19 Nothing for you, return home
10–20 My position is
10–21 Call by telephone
10–22 Report in person
10–23 Stand by
10–24 Task completed
10–25 Can you cont
act?
10–26 Disregard last message
10–27 Changing channel
10–28 identify your station
10–29 Contact time up
10–30 Against regulations
10–32 I will give you a radio check
10–33 Emergency traffic at this station
10–34 Trouble, need help
10–35 Confidential
10–36 Time is now
10–37 Breakdown lorry needed
10–38 Ambulance needed
10–39 Message delivered
10–41 Tune to
10–42 Traffic accident
10–43 Traffic jam
10–44 I have message for you
10–45 Units within range help
10–46 Help motorist
10–50 Break channel
10–60 Number of next message
10–62 Not understood, use telephone
10–65 Waiting for next message
10–67 All units comply
10–69 Message received
10–70 Fire
10–73 Speed trap
10–74 Negative
10–77 Negative contact
10–81 Reserve hotel room
10–82 Reserve room
10–84 My telephone number
10–85 My address
10–89 Radio mechanic required
10–91 Talk closer to microphone
10–92 Adjust transmitter
10–93 Check my frequency
10–99 Mission completed
10–100 Stop at lavatory
10–200 Police needed
10–2000 Drug trafficker
More complex messages use everyday English, peppered with its own slang, which make it attractive to initiates and largely unintelligible to outsiders. There are now dialects of this variety: the UK system is not identical to the one used in the USA, because of differences in the two cultures.