Henry IV 1399–1413
Henry V 1413–22
Henry VI 1422–61
Edward IV 1461–70, 1471–83
Henry VI 1470–71
Edward V 1483
Richard III 1483–85
Henry VII 1485–1509
Henry VIII 1509–47
Edward VI 1547–53
Mary I 1553–8
Elizabeth I 1558–1603
Sicily
Roger I 1062–1101
Simon 1101–5
Roger II 1105–54
William I 1154–66
William II 1166–89
Tancred 1189–94
William III 1194
Henry I (VI of Germany) 1194–7
Frederick I (II of Germany) 1197–1250
Conrad I (IV of Germany) 1250–54
Conrad II (Conradin) 1254–8
Manfred 1258–66
Charles I 1266–85 (Naples only 1282–5)
Naples:
Charles II 1285–1309
Robert I 1309–43
Sicily:
Peter I (III of Aragon) 1282–5
James I (II of Aragon) 1285–96
Frederick II 1296–1337
(these kingdoms continued independent until the sixteenth century)
Castile
Ferdinand I 1036–65
Sancho II 1065–72
Alfonso VI 1072–1109
Urraca 1109–26
Alfonso VII 1126–57
Sancho III 1157–8
Alfonso VIII 1158–1214
Henry I 1214–17
Ferdinand III 1217–52
Alfonso X 1252–84
Sancho IV 1284–95
Ferdinand IV 1295–1312
Alfonso XI 1312–50
Peter I 1350–69
Henry II 1369–79
John I 1379–90
Henry III 1390–1406
John II 1406–54
Henry IV 1454–74
Isabella 1474–1504
Ferdinand V (II of Aragon) 1475–1516
as Spain:
Charles I (V of Germany) 1516–56
Philip II 1556–98
León
Ferdinand I 1037–65
Alfonso VI 1065–1109
(1109–57 as Castile)
Ferdinand II 1157–88
Alfonso IX 1188–1230
Ferdinand III 1230–52
(from 1252 as Castile)
Aragon
Sancho I 1063–94
Peter I 1094–1104
Alfonso I 1104–34
Ramiro II 1134–7
Petronilla and Ramon Berenguer 1137–62
Alfonso II 1162–96
Peter II 1196–1213
James I 1213–76
Peter III 1276–85
James II 1291–1327
Alfonso IV 1327–36
Peter III 1336–87
John I 1387–96
Martin I 1396–1410
Ferdinand I 1412–16
Alfonso V 1416–58
John II 1458–79
Ferdinand II 1479–1516
(from 1516 as Castile/Spain)
Hungary
Ladislas I 1077–95
Coloman 1095–1116
Stephen II 1116–31
Bela II 1131–41
Geza II 1141–62
Stephen III 1162, 1163–72
Stephen IV 1162–3
Bela III 1172–96
Emeric 1196–1204
Ladislas II 1204–5
Andrew II 1205–35
Bela IV 1235–70
Stephen V 1270–72
Ladislas III 1272–90
Andrew III 1290–1301
Wenceslas III 1301–4
Otto of Bavaria 1304–8
Charles Robert 1308–42
Louis I 1342–82
Mary, 1382–6, 1386–7
Charles II 1385–6
Sigismund 1387–1437
Albert I 1438–9
Ladislas IV 1439–44
Ladislas V 1444–57
Matthias Corvinus 1458–90
Ladislas VI 1490–1516
Louis II 1516–26
Ottoman Empire
Osman d. 1326
Orkhan 1326–62
Murad I 1362–89
Bayezid I 1389–1402
(Interregnum civil wars 1403–13)
Mehmed I 1413–21
Murad II 1421–51
Mehmed II 1451–81
Bayezid II 1481–1512
Selim I 1512–20
Suleiman I 1520–66
Selim II 1566–74
Jerusalem
Godfrey of Bouillon 1099–1100
Baldwin I 1100–1118
Baldwin II 1118–31
Fulk 1131–43 and Melisende 1131–52
Baldwin III 1143–63
Amalric 1163–74
Baldwin IV 1174–85
Baldwin V 1185–6
Guy of Lusignan 1186–92; with his wife Sybil 1186–90, daughter of Amalric
Isabel I 1192–1205; with Conrad I 1192; Henry 1192–7; Aimery 1197–1205
Maria 1205–12
John of Brienne 1210–25
Isabel II 1212–28; with Frederick (II of Germany) 1225–8
Conrad II (IV of Germany) 1228–54
Conrad III (Conradin) 1254–68
Hugh I (III of Cyprus) 1268–84
John 1284–5
Henry I (II of Cyprus) 1285–1324
Antioch
Bohemund 1098–1105
Tancred regent 1101–3, 1105–8; prince 1108–12
Roger of Salerno 1113–19
Baldwin II of Jerusalem 1119–26, 1130–1
Bohemund II 1126–30
Fulk of Jerusalem 1130–36
Raymond of Poitiers 1136–49
Constance 1149–53, 1161–3
Raynald of Châtillon 1153–61
Bohemund III 1163–1201
Bohemund IV 1201–16, 1219–33
Raymond Roupen 1216–19
Bohemund V 1233–52
Bohemund VI 1252–68
Tripoli
Raymond IV of Toulouse, I of Tripoli 1102–5
William-Jordan 1105–9
Bertrand 1109–12
Pons 1112–37
Raymond II 1137–52
Raymond III 1152–87
Bohemund IV of Antioch 1187–1233
Bohemund V 1233–52
Bohemund VI 1252–75
Bohemund VII 1275–87
Edessa
Baldwin I of Boulogne 1098–1100
Baldwin II of Le Bourcq 1100–18
Joscelin I of Courtenay 1119–31
Joscelin II 1131–50
(Joscelin III titular count 1150–88)
Valois dukes of Burgundy
Philip the Bold 1363–1404
John the Fearless 1404–19
Philip the Good 1419–67
Charles the Rash 1467–77
GLOSSARY
Abbasids
Caliphs of orthodox Sunnis, 750–1258, based in Baghdad
al-Andalus
Muslim Spain
Almohads
Fundamentalist Muslim dynasty and movement originating in early twelfth-century Morocco; created an empire in north Africa and al-Andalus that lasted until the mid-thirteenth century
Almoravids
Fundamentalist Muslim dynasty and movement from Morocco that established an empire in north Africa and al-Andalus between the 1050s and the mid-twelfth century
askars
Groups of professional soldiers in the service of Arab and Turkish rulers
assise
Literally a sitting, its meaning transferring from a meeting of a court to legal processes and then to the actual laws themselves
atabeg
Regent or guardian of Turkish or Mamluk princes
Ayyubids
Family of the Kurdish comman
der Ayyub, Saladin’s father; a dynasty that ruled parts of the Near East from the 1160s
Byzantium
Modern name given to the surviving eastern Roman Empire based in Constantinople; finally extinguished by the Ottoman Turks in the mid-fifteenth century
caliph
Successor to the Prophet Muhammed (d. 632), religious and political leader of Islam, a role contested between different Islamic traditions
canon law
The rules, laws, principles and ordinances governing the Church and the conduct of the faithful, increasingly codified in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries although quiet on the legal theory of crusading
Cathars
A name given by their persecutors to twelfth- and thirteenth-century dualist believers (from the Greek katharos, clean or pure); those in Languedoc also called Albigensians
Chalcedonian Christians
Those denominations, including Catholics and Eastern Orthodox, that subscribe to the definition of the Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Ghost agreed at the Council of Chalcedon; other substantial Christian groups in the Near East, such as the Nestorian, Maronite and Jacobite communities, held different views on the nature of the Trinity and the relationship of the human and divine in Jesus
cogs
Round, clinker-built, single square-rigged sailing transport ships, central to Baltic trade and warfare, and increasingly used on crusades to the Levant from the later twelfth century
commune
Formal sworn civil association pooling command, jurisdiction and funds; crusade examples created before and during campaigns
crucesignatus/a
A man or woman who, in recognition of swearing a vow to pursue holy war, has received, been ‘signed with’, a cross; a crusader
dar al-Islam
The house of Islam; Muslim lands, as opposed to the dar al-harb, the house of war, or the dar al-ahd, the house of truce
Fatimids
Caliphs of Shia Muslims, 909–1171, based in north Africa, then Egypt
frangopouloi
Western Europeans settled in Byzantium
Franks
A generic term for western settlers in Outremer, ifranj in Arabic, sometimes derisively known in western Europe as poulains; also the name applied to the early medieval populations of modern France and western Germany
Great Schism
1378–1417 when two then, from 1409, three rival popes were recognised by different groups across western Christendom; crusades were occasionally used in the conflict
Hohenstaufen
German imperial dynasty producing four crusaders, Conrad III, Frederick I Barbarossa, Henry VI and Frederick II; also rulers of Sicily from 1194; target of papal hostility and crusades, 1239–68
Hussites
Followers of the religious ideas of Jan Hus (d. 1415) in Bohemia, a combination of ideological dissent and Czech nationalism; they survived repeated crusades to suppress them
Il-Khans of Persia
Mongol rulers of Iraq and Iran, 1261–1353; until 1323 putative but not actual allies of crusaders against Mamluk Egypt
indulgence
The remission of God’s punishment for sin, available to the sinner after confession to a priest and authorised by the pope acting as the successor to St Peter as Christ’s vicegerent with the power according to Christ’s command in Matthew 16:19 to bind and loose on earth and heaven
jihad
Literally ‘struggle’ or ‘striving’ in Arabic; in Islamic tradition denotes either inner spiritual struggle or the external struggle or holy war against infidels and heretics
Khwarazmians
Turkish nomadic freelance mercenaries displaced from the steppes by the Mongols; invaded Outremer in the pay of the sultan of Egypt in 1244, capturing Jerusalem
madrasa
Islamic religious school or college
Mamluks
Slave soldiers, usually steppe Turks; organised into regiments attached to Arab and Turkish rulers, played an increasingly prominent and independent military and hence political role until they usurped rule in Egypt, creating a Mamluk sultanate, 1250–1517
mendicants
Literally beggars; applied to members of the religious Orders founded by Francis of Assisi and Dominic of Osma, the Franciscan and Dominican friars, who were prominent in promoting crusading from the 1220s
Mongols
Asiatic steppe people of Altaic stock, united under Genghis Khan (d. 1227) before forging the largest land empire in history from China to Iraq and southern Russia; renowned for ruthlessness but adept at incorporating conquered people into their armies; in the 1240s their campaigning reached eastern and central Europe but, as non-Muslims, they were sometimes seen as potential allies for crusaders in the Levant against the mutual enemy, Egypt
Moors
Non-Muslim designation of Muslim inhabitants of the western Mediterranean
Mozarabs
Christians living in al-Andalus
mudejars
Muslims living under Christian rule in Spain
Ottomans
Turkish rulers of a small thirteenth-century principality in north-west Asia Minor who from the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries created an empire that stretched from the Danube to the Sahara; based from 1453 at Constantinople/Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire lasted until 1922
Outremer
The land beyond the sea, the principalities in Syria and Palestine settled by western Europeans after the First Crusade
papal bull
Public letter of the pope (a decree, order, grant of rights or privileges, etc.) authenticated by a lead seal (bulla); bula de cruzada authorising the sale of indulgences became a regular fiscal feature of Spanish rule into the twentieth century
passage
Term used to describe naval activity – civilian, commercial and military – during the twice-yearly windows when the winds and currents allowed for easier sea communication between the western Mediterranean and the Levant; also became used as synonym for sea-borne crusades, either of mass (passagium generale) or smaller, professional nature (passagium particulare)
penance
In Christian terms, a punishment performed in expiation of sin and demonstration of repentance, customarily imposed by priests after the sinner has confessed to the sin
pilgrimage
Journeys to holy sites; regarded as spiritually beneficial or imposed as a penance; also a metaphor for internal spiritual journeying
portolan
Navigational charts and maps based on compass points and observed distances between ports; in use by the late thirteenth century and probably earlier
reconquista
The name given somewhat tendentiously to the conquest of al-Andalus by Iberian Christian rulers from the late eleventh century
redemption of vows
A system developed from the late twelfth century and perfected between 1213 and 1234 that allowed the faithful to take the cross and fulfil their obligation and enjoy the privileges by redeeming their oath not by participation but through paying money or other material contributions; this developed into the direct sale of remissions and indulgences
Reisen
Raids; short winter and summer Baltic campaigns by the Teutonic Knights against the Lithuanians in the fourteenth century attracting western European recruits
Rumelia
The European territories of the Ottoman Empire, chiefly the Balkans
Seljuks
Nomadic Turks from the Eurasian steppes who invaded and conquered much of the Near East in the eleventh century
Shi’ites
Muslims who believe authority in Islam rightfully descends through the immediate family of Muhammed via his son-in-law Ali (caliph assassinated 661) and his descendants, spiritual leaders called imams, opposed to the authority of Sunni caliphs
sultan
Islamic ruler, beneath the notional authority of the caliph
Sunnis
The majori
ty of Muslims who followed the sunna or custom, the accepted sayings and practices of Muhammed, which developed and clarified doctrine and law beyond the Koran
tithes
Taxes on laity and/or clergy for the crusade calculated on a tenth of annual surplus income; most famously used in 1188 in England and France, the so-called Saladin Tithe; from 1215 it became an irregular tax on the Church for the crusade
trebuchet
Effective large-scale throwing machine or catapult in use at sieges by 1200
ulema
Body of specialist Muslim religious and legal scholars
Umayyads
Muslim dynasty of caliphs, 661–750, who later established themselves as rulers of al-Andalus based at Cordoba, 756–1031, proclaiming themselves caliphs in 919
umma
The community of all Muslim people
Zengids
Turkish dynasty related to Imad al-Din Zengi (d. 1146), ruler of Mosul and Aleppo
NOTES
PREFACE
1. Ralph Glaber, Opera, ed. J. France (Oxford 1989), pp. 36–7; 61.
2. C. Morris, The Sepulchre of Christ and the Medieval West (Oxford 2005); M. Biddle, The Tomb of Christ (Stroud 1999).
INTRODUCTION
1. From the only surviving version of the decree of Urban II’s Council of Clermont, November 1095, J. and L. Riley-Smith, The Crusades: Idea and Reality 1095–1274 (London 1981), p. 37; trans. from R. Somerville, The Councils of Urban II: 1. Decreta Claromontensia (Amsterdam 1972), p. 74; cf. pp. 108, 124.
2. P. Jackson, ‘The Crusade against the Mongols (1241)’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History, 42 (1991), 1–18, esp. 6–7, 17–18; E. T. Kennan, ‘Innocent III, Gregory IX and Political Crusades’, Reform and Authority in the Medieval and Reformation Church, ed. G. F. Lytle (Washington, DC 1981), pp. 26–9; C. Tyerman, God’s War: A New History of the Crusades (London 2006), pp. 705 (Baltic) and 904 and nn. 63–5 (anti-crusade crusades).