including Idaho: Center for Sentencing Initiatives, Research Division, National Center for State Courts, “Use of Risk and Needs Assessment Information at Sentencing: 7th Judicial District, Idaho,” December 2013, accessed January 8, 2016, www.ncsc.org/~/media/Microsites/Files/CSI/RNA%20Brief%20-%207th%20Judicial%20District%20ID%20csi.ashx.
and Colorado: Ibid.
at least twenty-four of them: LSI–R is used in the following twenty-four states, according to these documents (mostly published by the corresponding departments of corrections); all links accessed January 13, 2016.
Alaska, www.correct.state.ak.us/pnp/pdf/902.03.pdf
Colorado, www.doc.state.co.us/sites/default/files/phase_ii.pdf
Connecticut, www.ct.gov/opm/lib/opm/cjppd/cjabout/mainnav/risk_assessment_strategy.pdf
Delaware, https://ltgov.delaware.gov/taskforces/djrtf/DJRTFVOPAppendixBFINAL.pdf
Hawaii, http://ag.hawaii.gov/cpja/files/2013/01/AH-UH-Mainland-Prison-Study-2011.pdf
Idaho, http://sentencing.isc.idaho.gov/
Illinois, www.illinoiscourts.gov/supremecourt/annualreport/2012/adminsumm/administrative.pdf
Indiana, http://www.in.gov/idoc/files/CEBP_long_report(1).pdf and http://indianacourts.us/times/2011/04/risk-assessment/
Iowa, http://publications.iowa.gov/13104/
Kansas, www.doc.ks.gov/kdoc-policies/AdultIMPP/chapter-14/14-111a/view
Maine, www.bja.gov/Funding/14SmartSup-MDOCapp.pdf
Maryland, www.justicepolicy.org/images/upload/09-03_rpt_mdparole_ac-md-ps-rd.pdf
Minnesota, www.doc.state.mn.us/DocPolicy2/html/DPW_Display_TOC.asp?Opt=203.015.htm
Nebraska, www.uc.edu/content/dam/uc/ccjr/docs/vitas/VITA10_PVV.pdf
Nevada, www.leg.state.nv.us/74th/Exhibits/Assembly/JUD/AJUD77H.pdf
New Hampshire, www.nh.gov/nhdoc/policies/documents/6-33.pdf
North Carolina, www.ncids.org/Reports%20&%20Data/Latest%20Releases/SentencingServicesContReview3-1-10.pdf
North Dakota, www.nd.gov/docr/adult/docs/DOCR%20Programs%20Reference%20Guide%20(Rev.%204-14).pdf
Oklahoma, www.ok.gov/doc/documents/LSI-R%20White%20Paper.pdf
Pennsylvania, http://pacrimestats.info/PCCDReports/RelatedPublications/Publications/Publications/Pennsylvania%20Board%20of%20Probation%20and%20Parole/Ctr%20for%20Effective%20Public%20Policy.pdf
Rhode Island, www.doc.ri.gov/administration/planning/docs/LSINewsletterFINAL.pdf
Utah, http://ucjc.utah.edu/wp-content/uploads/LSI-Implementation-Report-final.pdf
Washington, http://static.nicic.gov/Library/019033.pdf
CHAPTER 2
Alberto Ramirez, who made $14,000 a year: Carol Lloyd, “Impossible Loan Turns Dream Home into Nightmare,” SFGate, April 15, 2007, www.sfgate.com/business/article/Impossible-loan-turns-dream-home-into-nightmare-2601880.php.
Baltimore officials charged Wells Fargo: Michael Powell, “Bank Accused of Pushing Mortgage Deals on Blacks,” New York Times, June 6, 2009, www.nytimes.com/2009/06/07/us/07baltimore.html.
a former bank loan officer, Beth Jacobson: Ibid.
71 percent of them were in largely African American neighborhoods: Ibid.
Wells Fargo settled the suit: Luke Broadwater, “Wells Fargo Agrees to Pay $175M Settlement in Pricing Discrimination Suit,” Baltimore Sun, July 12, 2012, http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2012-07-12/news/bs-md-ci-wells-fargo-20120712_1_mike-heid-wells-fargo-home-mortgage-subprime-mortgages.
CHAPTER 3
the staff at U.S. News: Robert Morse, “The Birth of the College Rankings,” U.S. News, May 16, 2008, www.usnews.com/news/national/articles/2008/05/16/birth-the-of-college-rankings.
In the other quarter: Julie Rawe, “A Better Way to Rank Colleges?” Time, June 20, 2007, http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1635326,00.html.
Baylor University paid the fee: Sara Rimer, “Baylor Rewards Freshmen Who Retake SAT,” New York Times, October 14, 2008, www.nytimes.com/2008/10/15/education/15baylor.html.
including Bucknell University: Nick Anderson, “Five Colleges Misreported Data to U.S. News, Raising Concerns About Rankings, Reputation,” Washington Post, February 6, 2013, www.washingtonpost.com/local/education/five-colleges-misreported-data-to-us-news-raising-concerns-about-rankings-reputation/2013/02/06/cb437876-6b17-11e2-af53-7b2b2a7510a8_story.html.
And Iona College: Robert Morse, “Iona College Admits to Inflating Rankings Data for 9 Years,” U.S. News, December 1, 2011, www.usnews.com/education/blogs/college-rankings-blog/2011/12/01/iona-college-admits-to-inflating-rankings-data-for-9-years.
was tumbling in the U.S. News ranking: Logan Wilson, “University Drops in Ranking for the Third Time in a Row,” TCU 360, September 4, 2008, www.tcu360.com/story/university-drops-in-ranking-for-third-time-in-a-row-12287643/.
Raymond Brown, the dean: Ibid.
TCU launched a $250 million fund-raising drive: TCUleads, “U.S. News & World Report Rankings Show Improvement for TCU,” Texas Christian University, September 9, 2014, accessed January 9, 2016, http://newsevents.tcu.edu/stories/u-s-news-world-report-rankings-show-improvement-for-tcu/.
applications to BC: Sean Silverthorne, “The Flutie Effect: How Athletic Success Boosts College Applications,” Forbes, April 29, 2013, www.forbes.com/sites/hbsworkingknowledge/2013/04/29/the-flutie-effect-how-athletic-success-boosts-college-applications/.
Its rank in the U.S. News list climbed: TCUleads, “U.S. News & World Report Rankings.”
the cost of higher education rose: Michelle Jamrisko and Ilan Kolet, “College Costs Surge 500% in U.S. Since 1985: Chart of the Day,” Bloomberg Business, August 26, 2013, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-08-26/college-costs-surge-500-in-u-s-since-1985-chart-of-the-day.
“any other characteristic you desire”: Ruffalo Noel Levitz, “ForecastPlus for Student Recruitment™,” accessed January 9, 2016, www.ruffalonl.com/enrollment-management/enrollment-marketing-services-to-target-and-recruit-students/recruitment-technologies/forecast-plus-student-recruitment-predictive-modeling.
mathematics department at Saudi Arabia’s King Abdulaziz University: Megan Messerly, “Citations for Sale,” Daily Californian, December 5, 2014, www.dailycal.org/2014/12/05/citations-sale/.
authorities began to suspect: Malcolm Moore, “Riot after Chinese Teachers Try to Stop Pupils Cheating,” Telegraph, June 20, 2013, www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/10132391/Riot-after-Chinese-teachers-try-to-stop-pupils-cheating.html.
plication-boot-camp/.
Ma, founder of ThinkTank Learning: Peter Waldman, “How to Get into an Ivy League College—Guaranteed,” Bloomberg BusinessWeek, September 4, 2014, www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2014-09-04/how-to-get-into-an-ivy-league-college-guaranteed.
President Obama suggested: Li Zhou, “Obama’s New College Scorecard Flips the Focus of Rankings,” Atlantic Monthly, September 15, 2015, www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2015/09/obamas-new-college-scorecard-flips-the-focus-of-rankings/405379/.
A New York Times report in 2011: David Segal, “Is Law School a Losing Game?,” New York Times, January 8, 2011, www.nytimes.com/2011/01/09/business/09law.html.
CHAPTER 4
$50 million on Google ads: Meghan Kelly, “96 Percent of Google’s Revenue Is Advertising, Who Buys It?,” Venture Beat, January 29, 2012, http://venturebeat.com/2012/01/29/google-advertising/.
Between 2004 and 2014, for-profit enrollment tripled: David Deming, Claudia Goldin, and Lawrence Katz, “For-Profit Colleges,” Postsecondary Education in the United States 23 (Spring 2013): 137–63, http://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/journals/article/index.xml?journalid=79&articleid=584.
the industry now accounts for 11 percent: Emily Jane Fox, “White House Crackdown on For-Profit Colleges Begins Today,” CNN, July 1, 2015, http://money.cnn.com/2015/07/01/pf/college/for-profit-colleges-debt/.
had more than eighty thousand students: Melody Peterson, “State Sues Corinthian Colleges, Citing ‘Predatory’ Tactics,” Orange County Register, October 10, 2013, www.ocregister.com/articles/company-530539-students-corinthian.html.
The complaint pointed out: Corinthian Colleges Inc., “California Attorney General Complaint Allegations vs. Facts,” accessed January 9, 2016, http://files.shareholder.com/downloads/COCO/3283532602x0x709108/11BC55FD-B86F-45DB-B082-5C6AEB6D8D30/CCi_Response_to_California_Attorney_General_Lawsuit.pdf.
the Obama administration put a hold: Review & Outlook, “Obama’s Corinthian Kill, Review and Outlook,” Wall Street Journal, July 15 2014, www.wsj.com/articles/obamas-corinthian-kill-1406327662.
In mid-2015: Shahien Nasiripour, “Corinthian Colleges Files for Bankruptcy,” Huffington Post, May 4, 2015, www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/05/04/corinthian-colleges-bankruptcy_n_7205344.html.
“unlawful, unfair, and fraudulent”: Megan Woolhouse, “For-Profit Colleges Get Harsh Grades by Former Students,” Boston Globe, October 20, 2014, www.bostonglobe.com/business/2014/10/19/high-debt-unfulfilled-dreams/KuDKIWiyRO5E5HDpRpSLRO/story.html.
A 2012 Senate committee report: Sheryl Harris, “For-Profit Colleges Provide Lesson in Strong-Arm Sales: Plain Dealing,” cleveland.com, August 4, 2012, www.cleveland.com/consumeraffairs/index.ssf/2012/08/for-profit_colleges_provide_le.html.
“We deal with people that live in the moment”: David Halperin, “What College Was Michael Brown About to Attend?,” Huffington Post, August 26, 2014, www.huffingtonpost.com/davidhalperin/what-college-was-michael_b_5719731.html.
recruiting team at the ITT Technical Institute: Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions, “For-Profit Higher Education: The Failure to Safeguard the Federal Investment and Ensure Student Success,” Senate Committee Print, S. Prt. 112-37, vol. 1, July 30, 2012, p. 60, www.gpo.gov/fdsys/granule/CPRT-112SPRT74931/CPRT-112SPRT74931/content-detail.html.
spent $120 million annually: Screenshot by author from a LinkedIn advertisement for a position in online marketing.
“Obama Asks Moms”: Sharona Coutts, “Bogus ‘Obama Mom’ Grants Lure Students,” ProPublica, July 23, 2010, www.propublica.org/article/bogus-+obama-+mom-+grants-+lure-+students.
colleges will pay as much as $150 each: Jenna Leventoff, “For-Profit Colleges Under Scrutiny for Targeting Vulnerable Students,” Equal Future, May 6, 2015, www.equalfuture.+us/+2015/+05/+06/+for-+profit-+colleges-+targeting-+vulnerable-+students/.
Salt Lake City–based Neutron Interactive: David Halperin, “More Scam Websites to Lure the Poor to For-Profit Colleges,” Huffington Post, November 13, 2014, www.huffingtonpost.+com/+davidhalperin/+more-+scam-+websites-+to-+lur_+b_+6151650.+html.
Each one was worth as much as $85: Coutts, “Bogus ‘Obama Mom.’ ”
US Government Accountability Office report: US Government Accountability Office, “For-Profit Colleges: Undercover Testing Finds Colleges Encouraged Fraud and Engaged in Deceptive and Questionable Marketing Practices,” GAO-10-948T, August 4, 2010, www.gao.+gov/+products/+GAO-+10-+948T.
According to Mara Tucker: Mara Tucker, in-person interview by author, June 15, 2015.
Cassie Magesis, another readiness counselor: Cassie Magesis, phone interview by author, June 16, 2015.
spent more than a billion dollars: Howard Hotson, “Short Cuts,” London Review of Books, June 2, 2011, www.lrb.+co.+uk/+v33/+n11/+howard-+hotson/+short-+cuts.
Portland Community College: Mike Dang, “For-Profit Colleges Still Terrible,” Billfold, August 1, 2012, https://+thebillfold.+com/+for-+profit-+colleges-+still-+terrible-+7e3b5bd3442b#.+4ti2e2y80.
the so-called 90-10 rule: Rebecca Schuman, “ ‘This Is Your Money’ Why For-Profit Colleges Are the Real Welfare Queens,” Slate, June 4, 2015, www.slate.+com/+articles/+life/+education/+2015/+06/+for_+profit_+colleges_+and_+federal_+aid_+they_+get_+more_+than_+90_+percent_+of_+their.+html.
Corinthian Colleges amounted to $3.5 billion: Tamar Lewin, “Government to Forgive Student Loans at Corinthian Colleges,” New York Times, June 8, 2015, www.nytimes.+com/+2015/+06/+09/+education/+us-+to-+forgive-+federal-+loans-+of-+corinthian-+college-+students.+html.
investigators at CALDER/American Institutes: Rajeev Darolia, Cory Koedel, Paco Martorell, Katie Wilson, and Francisco Perez-Arce, “Do Employers Prefer Workers Who Attend For-Profit Colleges? Evidence from a Field Experiment,” RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2014, accessed January 9, 2016, www.rand.+org/+pubs/+working_+papers/+WR1054.+html.
The top 20 percent of the population: William Domhoff, “Wealth, Income, and Power,” Who Rules America?, first posted September 2005, updated February 2013, accessed January 9, 2016, http://whorulesamerica.+net/+power/+wealth.+html.
Gregory W. Cappelli: Josh Harkinson, “The Nation’s 10 Most Overpaid CEOs,” Mother Jones, July 12, 2012, www.motherjones.+com/+politics/+2012/+07/+executive-+pay-+america-+top-+10-+overpaid-+ceo.
interest rates that average 574 percent: Gwen Ifill and Andrew Schmertz, “Fighting the Debt Trap of Triple-Digit Interest Rate Payday Loads,” PBS Newshour, January 6, 2016, www.pbs.+org/+newshour/+bb/+fighting-+the-+debt-+trap-+of-+triple-+digit-+interest-+rate-+payday-+loans/.
In 2015, the Federal Trade Commission: Lindsay Wise, “Feds Charge Data Broker with Selling Consumer Info to Scammers,” McClatchyDC, August 12, 2015, www.mcclatchydc.+com/+news/+nation-+world/+national/+article30862680.+html.
CHAPTER 5
The small city of Reading: Rob Engle, “The Guilded [sic] Age in Reading Pennsylvania,” Historical Review of Berks County, Summer 2005, www.berkshistory.+org/+multimedia/+articles/+the-+guilded-+age-+in-+reading-+pennsylvania/.
the highest poverty rate: Sabrina Tavernise, “Reading, Pa., Knew It Was Poor. Now It Knows Just How Poor,” New York Times, September 26, 2011, www.nytimes.+com/+2011/+09/+27/+us/+reading-+pa-+tops-+list-+poverty-+list-+census-+shows.+html.
crime prediction software made by PredPol: Steven Henshaw, “Homicides in Reading Rise, Other Crimes Down, Police Say,” Reading Eagle, August 30, 2015, www.readingeagle.+com/+news/+article/+homicides-+in-+reading-+rise-+other-+crimes-
+down-+police-+say.
Philadelphia police are using a local product: Juliana Reyes, “Philly Police Will Be First Big City Cops to Use Azavea’s Crime Predicting Software,” Technically Philly, November 7, 2013, http://technical.+ly/+philly/+2013/+11/+07/+azavea-+philly-+police-+crime-+prediction-+software/.
based on seismic software: Nate Berg, “Predicting Crime, LAPD-Style,” Guardian, June 25, 2014, www.theguardian.+com/+cities/+2014/+jun/+25/+predicting-+crime-+lapd-+los-+angeles-+police-+data-+analysis-+algorithm-+minority-+report.
Jeffrey Brantingham, the UCLA anthropology professor: Jeff Brantingham, PredPol’s chief of research and development, phone interview by author, February 3, 2015.
criminologist named George Kelling: George Kelling and James Wilson, “Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety,” Atlantic Monthly, March 1982, www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465/.
zero-tolerance campaigns: Judith Greene, “Zero Tolerance: A Case Study of Police Policies and Practices in New York City,” Crime and Delinquency 45 (April 1999): 171–87, doi:10.1177/0011128799045 002001.
Freakonomics: Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner, Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything (New York: William Morrow, 2005).
police in the British city of Kent: Berg, “Predicting Crime, LAPD-Style.”
PredPol squares were ten times as efficient: Kent Police, “PredPol Operational Review,” 2014, www.statewatch.org/docbin/uk-2014-kent-police-predpol-op-review.pdf.
the practice had drastically increased: Jeffrey Bellin, “The Inverse Relationship between the Constitutionality and Effectiveness of New York City ‘Stop and Frisk,’ ” Boston University Law Review 94 (May 6, 2014): 1495, William and Mary Law School Research Paper No. 09-274, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2413935.