normative issues, 61
norm management, 104; enforcement and, 106; institutional design and, 110; preconditions of, 106–10
Obama, Barack, 57, 81
obedience, 160n58; electric shock experiment and, 30–31; Holocaust and, 31
O’Connor, Sandra Day, 143
opinions: expressing, 155n10; of others, 6–7, 169n21; private, 27, 158n55; public, 21, 67, 158n55
outrage: dynamics of, 81; group polarization and, 83–84; punishment judgments and, 83; social movements and, 84
peer influence, 157n23
peer pressure, 19; financial rewards and, 23
pluralistic ignorance, 70
polarization: depolarization, 96–97; iterated polarization games, 121; judiciary, 131. See also group polarization
policy, 21
political diversity, 150; judiciary and, 127–30, 153n3
political parties, 150, 153n3; bipartisanship, 133–34; judicial appointments and, 131; judicial behavior study and, 123–27
political violence, 93
politics: deliberation and, 1–2, 114; judicial votes and decisions, 3–4; reputational pressure and, 73; social influence and, 8
Powell, Lewis, 139–42
president: judicial appointments and, 131, 135; legislature and, 118
private enforcement, 103–6
private information: informational cascades and, 40, 44; reputational cascades and, 70
private opinions, 27, 158n55
proportional representation, 121–22
public opinion, 21, 158n55; disclosure and, 67
punishment judgments, 90; outrage and, 83
punitive damage study, 81–82, 131, 166n31
punitive intentions study, 81–82
racial discrimination: affirmative action and, 142–43; in higher education, 138–39, 141–42
racial diversity, 10, 99; in higher education, 138–39, 150
racial profiling, 143–44
racial quotas, in higher education, 138–41
rational beliefs, x
rationality, 74
Rawls, John, 169n21
Raz, Joseph, 71
reactive devaluation, 26, 79
reducing conformity, 79
Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 139–42, 171n55
religion, ix, 65
representation: proportional, 121–22; representatives, 116
reputation, 62
reputational cascades, 68–74; civil liberties and, 71; ethnic identifications and, 70–71; example of, 68–69; group decisions and, 69; group polarization and, 88; legislature and, 69–70; local, 72; private information and, 70
reputational pressure, 70–71, 73
rewards: cascade behavior and, 52, 64; conformity, 57–58, 60; correct outcomes, 51–62; financial, 22–24; peer pressure and, 23
rhetorical advantage, 90; causes, 91–92; evaluation of, 92; groups and, 92; selfishness and, 91
secret ballots, 71, 159n55
Sedition Act, 120
self-categorization, 166n34
self-interest, 52
selfishness, 91
self-silencing, in groups, 84–85
Senate, U.S., 117–18; on Pledge of Allegiance, 69; Supreme Court justice appointments, 135–36
sensory perception: conformists and, 18; culture and, 16–17; Sherif, 12–15; studies, 12–18
separation of powers, 5
sex discrimination, 154n3
sexual harassment, 9, 104; silence on, 67
Sherif, Muzafer, 12–15, 41
Sherman, Roger, 116–17
signals: informational cascades and, 38; law as, 102–5
smoking, 104; bans, 102–3, 149
social cascades, 10, 35
social comparison, 87–88; hidden profiles and, 88
social influence, 79, 148; actions, statements of others and, 5–6; behavior and, 7; benefits of, 7; cascades and, 35; consumer choice and, 36; of dissent, 1; of dissenters, 11, 111; of groups, 11; judicial behavior study and, 125; of law, 8–9; on morality, 34; music download study, 35–37; opinion of others and, 6–7; politics and, 8; power of, 1–10
social media, 5; dissenters in, 66; fashion leaders on, 50; group polarization on, 81; informational cascades and, 50–51; tribalism and, xii. See also Facebook; Twitter
social movements, 72; anti-apartheid movement, 74; antislavery movement, 73; environmental movement, 73–74; #MeToo movement, 9, 74; outrage and, 84
social norms, 5; compliance with, 108
Social Psychology (Asch), 169n21
social values, 104–5
Supreme Court, U.S., 42–43, 50; Chevron v. NRDC, 127; dissent in, 54; diversity in, 143, 150; justice appointments, 135–36; Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 139–42, 171n55
tax law, 109–10
team behavior, 91
terrorism, 93
A Theory of Justice (Rawls), 169n21
de Tocqueville, Alexis, 65
totalitarian system, 112
tribalism, xi–xii
Trump, Donald, 81
Twitter, xii, 50; group polarization on, 81
unanimity, 96, 103
United States v. Paradise, 171n66
urn experiment, 44–46, 48–49, 55; cascades, 59–60; punishing incorrect answers, 59; reputational cascade and, 68; rewarding correct outcomes, 51–52, 59–60
war: democratic institutions and, 113; dissent and, 61–62, 110, 111–13
Washington, George, 118
Watts, Duncan, 35–37
whistleblowers, 143, 150, 170n43
Whitney v. California, 153n3
Wilson, James, 117
World War II, 111–13; dissent in, 5
About the Author
Cass R. Sunstein is the Robert Walmsley University Professor at Harvard. From 2009 to 2012, he served as the Administrator of the White House Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs. He is the bestselling coauthor of Nudge: Improving Decisions about Health, Wealth, and Happiness and author of The World According to Star Wars.