The
BIGGEST
ESTATE
on EARTH
Other books by Bill Gammage
The Broken Years: Australian Soldiers in the Great War
An Australian in World War I
Narrandera Shire
The Sky Travellers: Journeys in New Guinea 1938–1939
Co-authored:
The Story of Gallipoli
Co-edited:
Australians 1938
Crown or Country: The Traditions of Australian Republicanism
Hail and Farewell: Letters from Two Brothers Killed in France in 1916
Six Bob a Day Tourist
The
BIGGEST
ESTATE
on EARTH
HOW ABORIGINES MADE AUSTRALIA
BILL GAMMAGE
First published in 2011
Copyright © Bill Gammage 2011
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. The Australian Copyright Act 1968 (the Act) allows a maximum of one chapter or 10 per cent of this book, whichever is the greater, to be photocopied by any educational institution for its educational purposes provided that the educational institution (or body that administers it) has given a remuneration notice to Copyright Agency Limited (CAL) under the Act.
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To the people of 1788,
whose land care is unmatched,
and who showed what it is to be Australian
Fire, grass, kangaroos, and human inhabitants, seem all dependent on each other for existence in Australia; for any one of these being wanting, the others could no longer continue. Fire is necessary to burn the grass, and form those open forests . . . But for this simple process, the Australian woods had probably continued as thick a jungle as those
of New Zealand or America . . .
THOMAS MITCHELL, SYDNEY, JANUARY 1847
. . . observing that the grass had been burnt on portions of the flats the Blacks said that the rain that was coming on would make the young grass spring up and that would bring
down the kangaroos and the Blacks would spear them from the scrub.
OSWALD BRIERLY, EVANS BAY, CAPE YORK, 1 DECEMBER 1849
CONTENTS
Illustrations
Thanks
Sources
Abbreviations
Definitions
Foreword by Henry Reynolds
Australia in 1788
Introduction: The Australian estate
1. Curious landscapes
2. Canvas of a continent
Why was Aboriginal land management possible?
4. Heaven on earth
5. Country
How was land managed?
6. The closest ally
7. Associations
8. Templates
9. A capital tour
10. Farms without fences
Invasion
11. Becoming Australian
Appendix 1: Science, history and landscape
Appendix 2: Current botanical names for plants named with capitals in the text
Notes
Bibliography
ILLUSTRATIONS
All illustrations are in chapter 2.
Pictures 1–4: Light
1. Swamp Gum
2. Yellow and Apple Box
3. White Gum
4. Blakely’s Red Gum
Pictures 5–12: Fire
5. Snow Gum
6. Eucalypts and acacias
7. Ribbon Gum
8. River Red Gum
9. Snappy Gum
10–11. Kangaroo Grass
12. Eaglemont 1889
Pictures 13–22: Broad-scale fire
13. Endeavour River 1770
14–15. Esk River 1809 and 2008
16. Mills’ Plains c1832–4
17. Onkaparinga 1838
18. Adelaide c1840
19. Ginninginderry c1832
20. Near Melbourne 1847?
21–2. Mt Eccles 1858 and 2007
Pictures 23–30: Arid-zone fire
23–4. Spencer’s Kantju 1894 and 2005
25–6. Spencer’s Uluru 1894 and 2005
27–8. Mountford’s Uluru 1938 and 2005
29–30. Great Sandy Desert 1953 and 2005
Pictures 31–37: 1788 fire patterns—edges
31. Constitution Hill c1821
32. Lively’s Bog 1998
33. Wannon Valley 1858
34. Wingecarribee River c1821
35. Swan River 1827
36. Mt Lindesay c1829
37. Milkshake Hills 2002
Pictures 38–41: 1788 fire patterns—patches and mosaics
38. Snowy Bluff 1864
39. Deadman’s Bay c2001
40. Bunya Mountains 2003
41. Near Mudgeegonga 1963
Pictures 42–52: 1788 fire patterns—templates
42. Wineglass Bay c2001
43. Branxholm 1853
44–5. Cape York 1891
46–7. Gatcomb 1949 and 1984
48. Gatcomb 2002
49. Kadina 1874
50. Bundaleer 1877–8
51–2. Lake George 1821 and 2009
Pictures 53–58: Templates in use
53. Hunting kangaroos c1820
54. Using fire c1820
55. Spearing fish c1820
56. Barwon Valley 1847
57. King George Sound 1832
58. Somerset 1872
Picture 59: A European mosaic
59. Kangaroo Island 1983
THANKS
This book is about achievements of people I never knew. Far too late, I thank them.
Before everyone else I thank my wife Jan. She has always helped my work, but for this book more than any other she gave up much, with extraordinary patience and good humour over many years. She made the book possible.
I next thank three friends, clear-eyed readers: Henry Nix, Henry Reynolds and Denis Tracey, for polishing a draft and for help along the way. I thank Henry Reynolds especially, for years of encouragement, and for his generous foreword.
I thank the Humanities Research Centre at the ANU for hosting my research, and an ARC Fellowship for generously supporting part of it. I thank Pip Deveson, Leena Messina, Mike Powell, Jill Waterhouse and especially Gurol Baba for help with images, and I thank the staff of the archives and libraries listed in the Abbreviations, especially my friends at the National Library of Australia. I thank Elizabeth Weiss at Allen & Unwin for her promptness, courtesy and efficiency.
The following list makes clear how impossible it is to thank as they deserve the many other people who helped me:
ACT: Bryant Allen, Don Baker, John Banks, Tim Bonyhady, Ian Brooker, Phil Cheney, Bill Clarke, Bob Cooper, Jan Cooper, Helen Diga
n, Mary Eagle, Brian Egloff, Barney Foran, Kevin Frawley, Alison French, Ian Gammage, Jake Gillen, Jack Golson, Janda Gooding, Peter Greenham, Chris Gregory, Niel Gunson, Stuart Hay, Luise Hercus, Robin Hide, Geoff Hope, Iain McCalman, Neal McCracken, Kim McKenzie, George Main, Sally May, John Merritt, Howard Morphy, John Mulvaney, Daphne Nash, Hank and Jan Nelson, Jim Noble, Penny Olsen, David Paterson, Nic Peterson, Tony Vale, Gerry Ward, Elizabeth Williams.
France: Laurent Doussot.
NSW: John Blay, Denis Byrne, Janet and Jim Fingleton, Nic Gellie, David Goldney, Helen Harrison, David Horton, Christine Jones, Ian Lunt, John McPhee, Chris Moon, Eric Rolls and Elaine van Kempen, Yuji and Hiroko Satake, Rob Sellick, Stan Walton, Peter and Bunty Wright.
NT: Dave Bowman, Jim Cameron, David Carment, Stuart Duncan, Ted Egan, Margaret Friedl, Punch and Marilyn Hall, Dick Kimber, Chris Materne, Julia Munster and Sam Spiropoulis, Vern O’Brien, Tom Vigilante, James Warden, Samantha Wells.
NZ: Ian Campbell.
Queensland: John Bradley, Athol Chase, Mac Core, Arch Cruttenden, Russell Fairfax, Rod Fensham, Bill Kitson, Kate Lovett (Steve Parish Publishing), Yuriko Nagata and Terry Martin, Melissa Nursey-Bray, Anna Shnukal, Brian and Jenny Wright.
SA: Carmel and Eric Bogle, Philip Clarke, Rob Foster, Tom Gara, Diana Honey, Rob Linn, Leith MacGillivray, John and Sue McEntee, Jean and Ron Nunn, Bernie O’Neil, Mick Sincock, Peter Sutton.
Tasmania: Jayne Balmer, Mick Brown, Graeme Calder, Sib Corbett, Fred Duncan, Louise Gilfedder, Andrew Gregg, David Hansen, Margaret Harman, Bill Jackson, Jamie Kirkpatrick, Greg Lehman, Jon Marsden-Smedley, Bruce McIntosh, Bill Mollison, Mike Pemberton, Edwina and Mike Powell, Mitchell Rolls, Lindy Scripps, Bill Tewson, Ivor and Sheila Thomas.
Victoria: Corinne Clark, Peter Coutts, Julia Cusack, Beth Gott, Jeanette Hoorn, Lynne Muir, Mathew Phelan, Judy Scurfield, Frances Thiele, Ian Thomas.
WA: Geoff Bolton, Jack Bradshaw, Neil Burrows, Peter Gifford, Ian Rowley, George Seddon, Tom Stannage, Roger Underwood, Dave Ward.
SOURCES
Few sources here come directly from Aboriginal people. Over the years Aboriginal friends and acquaintances in Narrandera, Alice Springs, the Coorong and northern Tasmania have taught me, but this book discusses all Australia, and I had neither the time nor the presumption to interrogate people over so great an area on matters they value so centrally. Instead there are three main source categories:
• writing and art depicting land before Europeans changed it
• anthropological and ecological accounts of Aboriginal societies today, especially in the Centre and north
• what plants tell of their fire history and habitats.
I have tried to exclude sources reflecting such natural determinants as soil or salt rather than human impact. No doubt I have not always succeeded. To compensate for this, and to defuse a charge deniers of Aboriginal impact make—that there is no evidence for it—I have accumulated a wide range of sources. They come from across Australia—not from every corner, but from more than enough corners to join the dots, for no people would apply such detailed skill and knowledge for so long to most parts, yet not manage the rest, or not know how. I hope the sheer volume and detail of the evidence might support the book’s central argument: that the 1788 landscape was made, that so many records over so great an area cannot all be wrong.
They are a fraction of what exists. Much lies unread or unnoted in the historical record which might answer important questions about Aboriginal land management. At least some answers are lost, but I believe more is possible than this book offers. It is only a start. It merely offers clues on what to look for on the ground and in the records, so that one day Australians might see more clearly the great story of their country.
ABBREVIATIONS
1. Institutions
AGSA Art Gallery of South Australia, Adelaide
ANU Australian National University, Canberra
AOT Archives Office of Tasmania, Hobart
DENR Dept of Environment & Natural Resources, Adelaide
ERM Lands Museum, Dept of Environment & Resource Management, Brisbane
FPB Forest Practices Board, Hobart
FT Forestry Tasmania, Hobart
JOL John Oxley Library, SLQ, Brisbane
LPE Place Names Unit, Dept Land, Planning and Environment, Darwin
LTO Lands Titles Office, Adelaide
ML Mitchell Library, SLNSW, Sydney
MSA Mortlock Library, SLSA, Adelaide
MV Museum Victoria, Melbourne
NAA National Archives of Australia, Canberra
NGA National Gallery of Australia, Canberra
NLA National Library of Australia, Canberra
NPWS National Parks and Wildlife Service
OHU Oral History Unit, NLA
PALM Planning and Land Management, Perth
PWS Parks and Wildlife Service
QSA Queensland State Archives, Brisbane
SAM South Australian Museum, Adelaide
SCMC Supreme Court, Sydney (Miscellaneous Correspondence)
SL State Library
SR State Records
TMAG Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery, Hobart
UPGS United Photo and Graphic Services, Blackburn, Victoria
VPRS Victorian Public Records Service, Melbourne
WCAA The Wesfarmers Collection of Australian Art, Perth
2. Sources
AAAS Australian Association for the Advancement of Science
ADB Australian Dictionary of Biography
BG Bill Gammage
BPP British Parliamentary Papers
c~ courtesy of
CCL Commissioner of Crown Lands
ch chapter
CSC Colonial Secretary Correspondence
D Diary
Des Despatch(es)
FB (Surveyors') Field Book(s)
HRA Historical Records of Australia
HRNSW Historical Records of NSW
J Journal(s)
L Letter(s)
LC Legislative Council
Mfm Microfilm
MS, ms manuscript
N Narrative
n note(s)
np no page numbers
P Paper(s)
PP Parliamentary Paper(s)
R Report(s)
ref reference
Rem Reminiscence, Recollection
RSC Report of Select Committee
SMH Sydney Morning Herald
VDL Van Diemen's Land
vol volume
DEFINITIONS
1788
The century or so of first contact between Aborigines and Europeans after white settlement began at Sydney Cove. In that century the contact frontier moved on and out until almost all Australia was known to the newcomers. The great world later found people it did not know of, but they knew of it, and in various ways awaited or avoided its coming. ‘1788’ includes these contacts.
‘1788’ is also shorthand for the beliefs and actions of Aboriginal people at the time of first contact. Thus “1788 fire” refers to the deliberate use of fire as a land management tool, while “since 1788” indicates a subsequent change to 1788 practice.
English stumbles to find apt words for 1788. Hundreds of pages try to define Aboriginal social units (tribe, horde, clan, mob, language group, family, kin) without achieving clarity or consensus. This book too uses words capable of imprecision:
animals
Usually includes birds, reptiles and insects.
association
Plant communities deliberately connected; a plant mosaic lacking enough evidence to identify as a template.
barren
1) treeless, or 2) useless to settlers.
bushfire
A fire accidentally or naturally lit. Some prefer the US word ‘wildfire’, but this implies that these fires are difficult or impossible to control, and that what they burn is wilderness. For Australia, and I believe elsewhere, both assu
mptions are wrong for 1788, and constricting, even defeatist, for today.
estate
Australia including Tasmania. Although comprising many ways of maintaining land, and managers mostly unknown to each other, this vast area was governed by a single religious philosophy, called in English the Dreaming. The Dreaming and its practices made the continent a single estate. In today’s terms, it blended a continuum of like-minded managers, mixed farms, and national parks.
people
Aborigines. Europeans are called ‘newcomers’ or an equivalent. It seems unjust to deprive Aborigines of the most common term for humanity simply because Europeans turned up, especially at a time when they were the only Australians. Similarly I use tribal names very cautiously, especially in the south. As Mike Powell’s article shows (see bibliography), these are mostly European inventions, not always sensibly related to 1788 life or land management. Where tribal names are entrenched I do use them; otherwise I use a more general term, such as ‘Tasmanians’. For a full list see under ‘Aboriginal groups’ in the index.
pick
Soft, green, short grass, high in nitrogen, preferred by all grass grazers.
predictable
Capable of being anticipated; certain assuming no adverse influence.
template
Plant communities deliberately associated, distributed, sometimes linked to natural features, and maintained for decades or centuries to prepare country for day-to-day working. Examples are a grassy clearing or plain beside water and ringed by open forest, an alternating grass–forest circuit or sequence designed to rotate where grazing animals fed, and a big open plain with little or no tree cover to deter animals but promote plants. To work well, templates for animals had to be kept suitably apart, but linked into a network ultimately universal (ch 8).
universal
The extent of the Dreaming; the limits of the imagined world; Australia including Tasmania; the Australian estate.
FOREWORD
Henry Reynolds
At the time of Federation there was an upsurge of interest in the Aborigines. Scientists like Baldwin Spencer and enthusiastic amateur ethnographers like FJ Gillen, RH Mathews and AW Howitt carried out research in remote parts of Australia and examined relevant written records which had been accumulating over the previous century. There was a sense of urgency about their work. Ascendant evolutionary theory suggested that the Aborigines were destined to be driven to imminent extinction by the iron laws of evolution. The widely observed decline of the indigenous population appeared to confirm evolution’s death sentence. The anthropological information sought by the scholars was endangered. It would soon disappear with the old tribesmen and women and be lost forever. And it was irreplaceable because it was assumed to embody evidence about the pre-historic origins of humankind, about language, religion, art, marriage and other social institutions. This gave these Australian studies international importance. Scientific journals in Europe and North America clamoured to publish their findings, and books on the Aborigines found readers among the intellectual elites, who used the raw ethnological data to weave sophisticated theories about human nature. But the scholars of this time had no interest in the actual Aboriginal communities living among the colonists in fringe camps or on sheep and cattle stations. They were seen as people who had lost both their racial purity and their pristine culture. They were also inclined to be irreverent and un-cooperative.