1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10; Ebenezer Gay, Austin, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., October 31, 1868, AC, ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 27; William H. How-
ard, Huntsville, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., October 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel
12; Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., to Fred W. Reinhard, A.A.A.G., May 28, 1868, AC, LS,
March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; and J. A. Wright to O. O. Howard, April 3, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 16.
22. Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to J. J. Reynolds, February 13, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 13; Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., August 31,
1868, AC, ROC, August–December, 1868, reel 27; Statement of Gray Shanks, July 25,
1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; L. S. Barnes, Inspector, to [Headquarters], July 25,
1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to J. P. Richardson,
A.A.A.G., March 4, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13.
23. Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to [J. J. Reynolds], October 7, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 13.
24. Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to [J. J. Reynolds], October 7, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 13; Wells Th
ompson to J. J Reynolds, September 23, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869,
reel 16; Nesbit Jenkins, Wharton, to Sheriff , September 12, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869,
reel 16.
25. For a more detailed account of the events that night, see Stockade Trial Tran-
script, Records of the Offi
ce of the Judge Advocate General–Army Court Martial Case
Files 1809–1894, Record Group 94, Records of the Adjutant General’s Offi
ce, 1780–1917,
National Archives, Washington, D.C., Case PP 629, Box 2582; and Christopher B.
Bean, “Death of a Carpetbagger: Th
e George Washington Smith Murder and Stockade
Trial in Jeff erson, Texas, 1868–1869,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 112 (January
2009): 263–292.
26. Ibid.
27. William G. Kirkman, Boston, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., September 18, 1868,
AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; N. B. Anderson to [J. J. Reynolds], September 13, 1868, AC,
LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; Richter, “Th
is Blood-
Th
irsty Hole,” 71; George S. Shorkley,
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270
Notes to pages 162–165
Clarksville, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., October 15, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15;
James M. Smallwood, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau Reconsidered: Local Agents and the
Black Community,” Texana 11 (Fall 1973): 313–317; Th
omas C. Griffi
n, Kaufman, to J. P.
Richardson, A.A.A.G., April 11, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 11; J. J. Reynolds to O. O.
Howard, March 21, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard,
September 18, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16.
28. Charles Haughn, Waco, to [Headquarters], October 2, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869,
reel 12; Charles Haughn, Waco, to [J. J. Reynolds], November 14, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 12; Charles Haughn, Waco, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., [October 1868], AC,
ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 22; Gregory Barrett, Tyler, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., August 14, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10; S. P. Donly to [Headquarters],
August 10, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 11; C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., to Gregory Barrett,
Tyler, August 28, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; Gregory Barrett, Tyler, to
Charles A. Vernou, September 8, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10. For more on remov-
ing the freedpeople as punishment, see H. S. Starr, Mount Pleasant, to J. P. Richardson,
A.A.A.G., March 5, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; C. H. Whittelsey, A.A.A.G., to J. J.
Reynolds, August 5, 1868, M742C, LS, October 1, 1867–August 31, 1868, reel 4; and
Gregory Barrett, Tyler, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., June 6, 1868, AC, LR, 1868, reel
10; and William H. Rock, Richmond, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., May 24, 1868, AC,
ROC, May–July, 1868, reel 25. Agents believing headquarters policy more than suffi
-
cient are William Holt, La Grange, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., November 30,
omas H. Baker, Lockhart, to C.
S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., August 31, 1868, AC, ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 27; and
Th
omas H. Baker, Lockhart, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., July 31, 1868, AC, ROC,
May–July, 1868, reel 26.
29. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., July 5, 1868,
AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., July 7, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; Special Orders No. 36, June 10, 1868,
AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; R. M. Bankhead, et al., to J. J. Reynolds,
June 20, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 10; J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard, June 10, 1868,
AC, LS, Mach 1867–May 1869, reel 1; J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard, July 13, 1868, AC,
LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to AAAG, July 13,
1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; William H. Stewart, Huntsville, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., July 5, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; Special Orders No. 42, July 13, 1868,
AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19.
30. Hennell Stevens to [J. J. Reynolds], December 17, 1867, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel
15; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., January 9, 1868, AC,
LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G., District of Texas, to J. P. Richardson,
A.A.A.G., February 28, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; C. H. Whittelsey, A.A.A.G., to
J. J. Reynolds, October 14, 1868, M742C, LS, October 1, 1867–August 31, 1868, reel 4;
General Orders No. 8, August 7, 1868, AC, IRB, October 1865–April 1869, reel 19; Wil-
liam H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., January 2, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 15; Special Orders No. 2, January 10, 1868, AC, IRB, October 1865–April
1869, reel 19; J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., to O. O. Howard, March 25, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 16; William H. Rock, Richmond, to William H. Sinclair, Inspector, Jan-
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Notes to pages 165–170
271
uary 25, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15; Arthur B. Homer, Columbia, to J. P. Richard-
son, A.A.A.G., January 18, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 12; J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G.,
to A. H. M. Taylor, A.A.A.G., District of Texas, February 20, 1868, AC, LS, March
1867–May 1869, reel 1; Major Fred Ledergerber to [Headquarters], October 18, 1868, AC,
LR, 1867–1869, reel 16; Special Orders No. 59, September 28, 1868, AC, IRB, October
1865–April 1869, reel 19; Special Orders No. 65, November 2, 1868, AC, IRB, October
1865–April 1869, reel 19; C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G. to William H. Sinclair, Inspector,
October 2, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., to Otto
F. Steinberg, Gonzales, October 24, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; J. J.
Reynolds to O. O. Howard, October 1, November 6, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May
1869, reel 1; J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard, October 1, 1868, AC, ES, September 1867–
May 1869, reel 2; Otto F. Steinberg to [Charles A. Vernou], A.A.A.G., October 30, 1868,
AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 15.
31. Nesbit B. Jenkins, Wharton, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., December, 31,
1868, AC, ROC, November–December, 1868, reel 28; David S. Beath, Bastrop, to
Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., December, 1, 1868, AC, ROC, November–December,
1868, reel 28; James Gillette, Bryan, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., November 5, 1868,
AC, ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 25; James Gillette, Bryan, to Charles A. Vernou,
A.A.A.G., December 10, 1868, AC, ROC, November–December, 1868, reel 28; Edward
C. Henshaw, Marshall, to C. S. Roberts, A.A.A.G., November 25, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–
1869, reel 12; Circular letter from J. J. Reynolds, December 8, 1868, AC, IRB, October
1865–April 1869, reel 19; Circular No. 10, November 17, 1868, AC, IRB, October 1865–
April 1869, reel 19; David S. Beath, Bastrop, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., October
31, 1868, AC, ROC, August–October, 1868, reel 27.
32. For a few works on the conservative attitude of Americans during Reconstruc-
tion, see Les Benedict, Compromise of Principle; and William Gillette, Retreat from
Reconstruction 1869–1879 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1979).
Conclusion: Th
e Subassistant Commissioners in Texas
1. Carpenter, Sword and Olive Branch, 156.
2. William H. Heistand, Hallettsville, to A. H. Lathrop, A.A.A.G., December 31,
1866, SAC, LS, May–June, 1866 and October 1866–March 1868, reel 21; Samuel C.
Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., February 28, 1866, AC, ULR,
1865–1866, reel 17; George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory, October 31, 1865,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; A. H. Cox, Liberty, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., July
31, 1868, AC, ROC, May–July, 1868, reel 26.
3. A work that criticizes the lack of troops during Reconstruction is Richter, Over-
reached on All Sides, 295, 300, 302–305.
4. George C. Abbott, Hempstead, to E. M. Gregory, November 23, 1865, AC, ULR,
1865–1866, reel 17.
5. DeWitt C. Brown, Wharton, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., April 3, 1867, AC, ROC,
December 1866–May 1867, reel 20.
6. James P. Hutchison, Columbus, to William H. Sinclair, A.A.G., August 14, 1866,
AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 6.
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272
Notes to pages 170–177
7. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., April 1, 1867, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 8; Albert A. Metzner, San Augustine, to James C. Devine, Galveston,
August 14, 1867, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 7.
8. Alex B. Coggeshall, Bastrop, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., February 5, 1867, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 4; Farmer- Kaiser, 95, 116.
9. Franke, “Becoming a Citizen,” 254.
10. Samuel C. Sloan, Richmond, to Chauncey C. Morse, A.A.A.G., January 27, 1866,
AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17; Franke, “Becoming a Citizen,” 275; John Dix, Corpus
Christi, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., March 26, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 11.
11. Endorsement of letter from William H. Sinclair, Galveston, J. B. Kiddoo, April
20, 1866, AC, ES, April 1866–September 1867, reel 2.
12. Craig, “Memoirs,” 79–80.
13. P. B. Johnson, Woodville, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., June 1, 1867, AC, LR,
1866–1867, reel 6.
14. William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. T. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., March 1, 1867, AC,
LR, 1866–1867, reel 8; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to Henry A. Ellis, A.A.A.G.,
November 30, 1866, AC, ULR, 1865–1867, reel 17; William H. Sinclair, Inspector, to J. B.
Kiddoo, December 23, 1866, AC, LR, 1866–1867, reel 8.
15. Th
omas H. Baker, Lockhart, to Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., July 31, 1868, AC,
ROC, May- July 1868, reel 26.
16. Howard, Autobiography, 2:363; John T. Raper, Columbus, to E. M. Gregory,
November 29, 1865, AC, ULR, 1865–1866, reel 17.
17. E. M. Gregory to Benjamin Harris, January 20, 1866, AC, LS, September 1865–
March 1867, reel 1; E. M. Gregory to O. O. Howard, June 18, 1866, M752C, LR, May–
August, 1866, reel 32; Richter, Overreached on All Sides, 288; Crouch, Freedmen’s
Bureau and Black Texans, 20.
18. J. B. Kiddoo to O. O. Howard, July 23, 1866, AC, LS, April 1866–September 1867,
reel 1.
19. Charles Griffi
n to O. O. Howard, February 18, 1867, M752C, LR, January–May,
1867, reel 44.
20. J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard, October 20, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–March
1869, reel 1.
21. J. J. Reynolds to O. O. Howard, October 20, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May
1869, reel 1; W. H. Cundiff to [J. J.] Reynolds, August 24, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel
10; A. T. Munroe, et al., to Chauncey E. Morse, A.A.A.G., August 17, 1868, AC, LR,
1867–1869, reel 13; A. T. Munroe to [Charles A.] Vernou, A.A.A.G., August 20, 1868,
AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; J. R. R. Lynch, et al., to Edwin Turnock, Commander, Post
of Centreville, February 28, 1868, AC, LR, 1867–1869, reel 13; J. P. Richardson,
A.A.A.G., to Fred W. Reinhard, Crockett, March 24, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May
1869, reel 1; J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., to Fred W. Reinhard, Crockett, February 12,
1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1; Charles A. Vernou, A.A.A.G., to W. H.
Cundiff , October 22, 1868, AC, LS, March 1867–May 1869, reel 1.
22. Cimbala and Miller, eds., Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruction, 346. For
agents’ racial beliefs and conservatism, see Michael Les Benedict, Compromise of Prin-
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Notes to pages 177–181
273
ciple; Perman, Retreat from Reconstruction; and White, “Black Lives, Red Tape,”
241–258.
23. Charles Gray, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau: A Missing Chapter in Social Welfare
History” (Ph.D., D.S.W., Yeshiva University, 1994), 1; Campbell, Grass- Roots Recon-
struction, 108; Dallas Herald, November 25, 1865; Rable, But Th
ere Was No Peace, 25;
David H. Donald, Liberty and Union: Th
e Crisis of Popular Government, 1830–1890
(Boston: Little Brown, 1978), 175–182.
24. William G. Kirkman, Boston, to J. P. Richardson, A.A.A.G., AC, ROC, Janu-
ary–February, 1868, reel 24; William G. Kirkman, A.A.A.G., September 30, 1867, AC,
ROC, September–October, 1867, reel 22.
25. Richter, Army in Texas During Reconstruction, 146–147; Richter, Overreached
on All Sides, 299–300.
26. For the counterfactual, see William Blair, “Th
e Use of Military Force to Protect
the Gains of Reconstruction,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 388–402.
27. Brooks Simpson, Th
e Reconstruction Presidents (Lawrence: University Press of
Kansas, 1998), 4. For the counterfactual arguments, see Heather Cox Richardson, “A
Marshall Plan for the South? Th
e Failure of Republican and Democratic Ideology dur-
ing Reconstruction,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 378–387; Robert F. Engs,
“Th
e Missing Catalyst: In Response to Essays on Reconstructions Th
at Might Have
Been,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 427–431; James L. Huston, “Reconstruc-
tion as It Should Have Been: An Exercise in Counterfactual History,” Civil War History
51 (December 2005): 358–363; Blair, “Use of Military Force to Protect the Gains of
Reconstruction,” 388–402; Michael Vorenberg, “Imagining a Diff erent Reconstruction
Constitution,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 416–426; Roger L. Ransom,
“Reconstructing Reconstruction: Options and Limitations to Federal Policies on Land
Distribution in 1866–1867,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 364–377; and James
L. Huston, “An Alternative to the Tragic Era: Applying the Virtues of Bureaucracy to
the Reconstruction Dilemma,” Civil War History 51 (December 2005): 403–415.
28. Richardson, “An Evaluation of the Freedmen’s Bureau in Florida,” 237.
29. Willie Lee Rose, “Blacks Without Masters: Protagonists and Issue,” in Slavery
and Freedom, ed. William W. Freehling (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 93;
Higgs, Competition and Coercion, 131; Finley, From Slavery to Uncertain Freedom, 169.
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Bibliography
Primary Sources
Manuscripts
Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine
Howard, Oliver Otis. Papers.
Center for American History, University of Texas at Austin
Evans, Ira Hobart. Vertical File.
Th
rockmorton, James W. Papers.
Wheelock, Edwin Miller Papers.
Howard University, Washington, D.C.
Howard, Oliver Otis. Papers.
Library of Congress (Manuscripts Division), Washington, D.C.
Grant, Ulysses S. Papers.
Sheridan, Philip H. Papers.
National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, D.C.
Johnson, Andrew. Papers.
New York Public Library, New York City
Carpenter, John A. “Agents of the Freedmen’s Bureau.” Unpublished Manuscript
(John A. Carpenter Papers).