(0), abduction of person (0), other (4), combination of above (0), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (2)
Central Texas
LaGrange, Fayette County, had 26 cases: settlement of crop/contract (6), money
owed, wages, or debt (11), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (1), contract
violation/interference (4), apprenticeship (0), possession of property, destruc-
tion of property, or theft (1), domestic issue (2), slander or defamation (0),
abduction of person (0), other (1), combination of above (0), and fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Bryan, Brazos County, had 16 cases: settlement of crop/contract (0), money
owed, wages, or debt (3), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (7), contract vio-
lation/interference (4), apprenticeship (0), possession of property, destruction
of property, or theft (1), domestic issue (0), slander or defamation (0), abduction
of people (0), other (0), combination of above (1), and fraud, blackmail, embez-
zlement, or swindling (0)
Lockhart, Caldwell County, had 84 cases: settlement of crop/settlement
(6), money owed, wages, or debt (52), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (5),
contract violation/interference (2), apprenticeship (0), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (15), domestic issue (0), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of people (0), other (4), combination of above (0), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Brenham, Washington County, had 92 cases: settlement of crop/contract
(28), money owed, wages, or debt (16), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (6),
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192 Appendix
B
contract violation/interference (15), apprenticeship (1), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (17), domestic issue (5), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (4), combination of above (0), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Seguin, Guadalupe County, had 183 cases: settlement of crop/contract (24),
money owed, wages, or debt (46), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (49), con-
tract violation/interference (10), apprenticeship (18), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (23), domestic issue (7), slander or defamation
(1), abduction of person (0), other (4), combination of above (1), and fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Austin, Travis County, had 1,248 cases: settlement of crop/contract (123),
money owed, wages, or debt (554), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (158),
contract violation/interference (88), apprenticeship (33), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (128), domestic issue (103), slander or defama-
tion (3), abduction of person (2), other (17), combination of above (28), and
fraud, blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (11)
Belton, Bell County, had 160 cases: settlement of crop/contract (28), money,
wages, or debt (59), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (32), contract viola-
tion/interference (3), apprenticeship (9), possession of property, destruction of
property, or theft (21), domestic issue (1), slander or defamation (0), abduction of
person (0), other (4), combination of above (3), and fraud, blackmail, embezzle-
ment, or swindling (0)
Marlin, Falls County, had 269 cases: settlement of crop/contract (23), money
owed, wages, or debt (60), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (34), contract
violation/interference (110), apprenticeship (1), possession of property, destruc-
tion of property, or theft (24), domestic issue (5), slander or defamation (0),
abduction of person (0), other (9), combination of above (1), and fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (2)
Waco, McLennan County, had 339 cases: settlement of crop/contract (49),
money owed, wages, or debt (181), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (38),
contract violation/interference (14), apprenticeship (4), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (37), domestic issue (7), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (6), combination of above (1), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (2)
Millican, Brazos County, had 132 cases: settlement of crop/contract (4), money
owed, wages, or debt (17), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (47), contract
violation/interference (42), apprenticeship (2), possession of property, destruc-
tion of property, theft (3), domestic issue (4), slander or defamation (1), abduction
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Appendix B
193
of person (0), other (6), combination of above (5), fraud, blackmail, embezzle-
ment, or swindling (1)
East Texas
Marshall, Harrison County, had 140 cases: settlement of crop/contract (11),
money owed, wages, or debt (43), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (42), con-
tract violation/interference (13), apprenticeship (0), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (14, domestic issue (4), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (12), combination of above (1), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, of swindling (0)
Boston, Bowie County, had 80 cases: settlement of crop/contract (3), money
owed, wages, or debt (20), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (19), contract
violation/interference (9), apprenticeship (8), possession of property, destruction
of property, or theft (2), domestic issue (1), slander or defamation (0), abduction
of person (0), other (15), combination of above (3), and fraud, blackmail, embez-
zlement, or swindling (0)
Crockett, Houston County, had 89 cases: settlement of crop/contract (11),
money owed, wages, or debt (62), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (7), con-
tract violation/interference (4), apprenticeship (0), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (0), domestic issue (2), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (3), combination of above (0), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Huntsville, Walker County, had 117 cases: settlement of crop/contract (58),
money owed, wages, or debt (31), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (9), con-
tract violation/interference (2), apprenticeship (0), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (5), domestic issue (5), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (5), combination of above (1), or fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (1)
Centreville, Leon County, had 13 cases: settlement of crop/contract (1), money
owed, wages, or debt (1), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (6), contract vio-
lation/interference (5), apprenticeship (0), possession of property, destruction of
property, or theft (0), domestic issue (0), slander or defamation (0), abduction of
person (0), other (0), combination of above (0), and fraud, blackmail, embezzle-
ment, or swindling (0)
San Augustine, San Augustine Coun
ty, had 7 cases: settlement of crop/con-
tract (0), money owed, wages, or debt (1), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting
(5), contract violation/interference (0), apprenticeship (0), possession of property,
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194 Appendix
B
destruction of property, theft (0), domestic issue (0), slander or defamation (0),
abducting of person (0), other (0), combination of above (1), and fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Sterling/Sumpter, Trinity County, had 244 cases: settlement of crop/contract
(19), money owed, wages, or debt (133), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (29),
contract violation/interference (20), apprenticeship (7), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (18), domestic issue (5), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (6), combination of above (4), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (3)
Cotton Gin, Freestone County, had 33 cases: settlement of crop/contract (5),
money owed, wages, or debt (8), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (2), con-
tract violation/interference (4), apprenticeship (2), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (6), domestic issue (4), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (1), combination of above (1), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Nacogdoches, Nacogdoches County, had 207 cases: settlement of crop/con-
tract (38), money owed, wages, or debt (84), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shoot-
ing (36), contract violations/interference (3), apprenticeship (4), possession of
property, destruction of property, or theft (27), domestic issue (3), slander or
defamation (0), abduction of person (0), other (6), combination of above (0), and
fraud, blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (6)
Palestine, Anderson County, had 303 cases: settlement of crop/contract (31),
money owed, wages, or debt (204), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (31),
contract violation/interference (6), apprenticeship (6), possession of property,
destruction of property, or theft (14), domestic issue (1), slander or defamation
(0), abduction of person (0), other (10), combination of above (0), and fraud,
blackmail, embezzlement, or swindling (0)
Tyler, Smith County, had 690 cases: settlement of crop/contract (39), money
owed, wages, or debt (391), assault, threats, fi ghting, or shooting (101), contract
violation/interference (34), apprenticeship (30), possession of property, destruc-
tion of property, or theft (51), domestic issue (6), slander or defamation (0),
abduction of person (0), other (7), combination of above (28), and fraud, black-
mail, embezzlement, or swindling (3)
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Notes
Introduction
1. John A. Carpenter, “Agents of the Freedmen’s Bureau,” John A. Carpenter
Papers, New York Public Library, New York, New York, 3–4.
2. Congressional Globe, 38th Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Blair and
Rives, 1866), 692, 689–691, 959–960, 1308; Ira C. Colby, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau: From
Social Welfare to Segregation,” Phylon 46 (3rd Qtr., 1985): 220–221; George R. Bentley,
A History of the Freedmen’s Bureau (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1959),
35–38. For a complete examination of the Freedmen’s Bureau creation, see John M.
Bickers, “Th
e Power to Do What Manifestly Must Be Done: Congress, the Freedmen’s
Bureau, and Constitutional Legislation,” Rogers Williams Law Review 70 (2007): 1–58.
3. Ibid.
4. O. O. Howard, Autobiography of Oliver Otis Howard, 2 vols. (New York: Th
e
Baker and Taylor Company, 1908), 2:363; Eileen Boris and Peter Bardaglio, “Th
e Trans-
formation of Patriarchy: Th
e Historical Role of the State,” in Families, Politics, and
Public Policy: A Feminist Dialogue on Women and the State, ed. Irene Diamond (New
York: Longman, 1983), 71–72; William A. Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Eco-
nomic, 1865–1877 (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1907), 33; Michael W.
Fitzgerald, Splendid Failure: Postwar Reconstruction in the American South (Chicago:
Ivan. R. Dee Publishers, 2007), 30–31; William S. McFeely, Yankee Stepfather: General
O. O. Howard and the Freedmen (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1968), 84;
Paul A. Cimbala and Randall M. Miller, eds., Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruc-
tion: Reconsiderations (New York: Fordham University Press, 1999), xvi; Victoria Olds,
“Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau as a Social Agency” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1966),
82–83, 219; Louis Henry Bronson, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau: A Public Policy Analysis”
(D.S.W. diss., University of Southern California, 1970), 282–283.
5. Barry A. Crouch, “Guardian of the Freedpeople: Texas Freedmen Bureau Agents
and the Black Community,” Southern Studies: An Interdisciplinary Journal of the South
3 (Fall 1992): 185. Studies focusing on the SACs are Ted Tunnell, ed., Carpetbagger from
Vermont: Th
e Autobiography of Marshall Harvey Twitchell (Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University Press, 1989); Ted Tunnell, Edge of the Sword: Th
e Ordeal of Carpetbag-
ger Marshall H. Twitchell in the Civil War and Reconstruction (Baton Rouge: Louisiana
State University Press, 2001); William A. Campbell, ed., “A Freedmen’s Bureau Diary
by George Wagner,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 48 (June 1964): 196–214; William A.
Quarterly 48 (September 1964): 333–359; Ruth Currie- McDaniel, Carpetbagger of Con-
science: A Biography of John Emory Bryant (New York: Fordham University Press,
1999); Cecil Harper, Jr., “Freedmen’s Bureau Agents in Texas: A Profi le” (unpublished
18779-Bean_TooGreat.indd 195
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196
Notes to pages 2–3
manuscript, Texas State Historical Association, 1987); Russell Duncan, Tunis Camp-
bell, Freedom’s Shore: Tunis Campbell and the Georgia Freedmen (Athens: University of
Georgia Press, 1986); James M. Smallwood, “Charles E. Culver, A Reconstruction
Agent in Texas: Th
e Work of Local Freedmen’s Bureau Agents and the Black Commu-
nity,” Civil War History 27 (December 1981): 350–361; James M. Smallwood, “G. T.
Ruby: Galveston’s Black Carpetbagger in Reconstruction Texas,” Houston Review 5
(Winter 1983): 24–33; Th
omas H. Smith, “Confl ict and Corruption: Th
e Dallas Estab-
lishment vs. the Freedmen’s Bureau Agent,” Legacies: A History Journal for Dallas and
North Central Texas 1 (Fall 1989): 24–30; William L. Richter, “ ‘Th
e Revolver Rules the
Day!’: Colonel DeWitt C. Brown and the Freedmen’s Bureau in Paris, Texas, 1867–
1868,” Southwestern
Historical Quarterly 93 (January 1990): 303–332; William L. Rich-
ter, “ ‘Th
is Blood-
Th
irsty Hole’: Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau Agency at Clarksville, Texas,
1867–1868,” Civil War History 38 (March 1992): 51–77; William L. Richter, “ ‘A Dear Lit-
tle Job’: Second Lieutenant Hiram F. Willis, Freedmen’s Bureau Agent in Southwestern
Arkansas, 1866–1868,” Arkansas Historical Quarterly 50 (Summer 1991): 158–200; John
Edmund Stealey, “Reports of Freedmen’s Bureau Operations in West Virginia: Agents
in Th
e Eastern Panhandle,” West Virginia History 42 (Fall/Winter 1981): 94–129; Paul
D. Escott, “Clinton A. Cilley, Yankee War Hero in the Postwar South: A Study in the
Compatibility of Regional Values,” Th
e North Carolina Historical Review 68 (October
1991): 404–426; Charles L. Price, “John C. Barnett, Freedmen’s Bureau Agent in North
Carolina,” Of Tar Heel Towns, Shipbuilders, Reconstructionists, and Alliancemen:
Papers in North Carolina History 5 (Autumn 1981): 51–74; Barry A. Crouch, Th
e Freed-
men’s Bureau and Black Texans (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992); Barry A.
Crouch, “View from Within: Letters of Gregory Barrett, Freedmen’s Bureau Agent,”
Chronicles of Smith County, Texas 12 (Winter 1973): 13–26; Paul A. Cimbala, “On the
Front Line of Freedom: Freedmen’s Bureau Offi
cers and Agents in Reconstruction
Georgia, 1865–1866,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 76 (Fall 1992): 577–611; Paul A. Cim-
bala, “Making Good Yankees: Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau and Education in Reconstruc-
tion Georgia, 1865–1868,” Atlanta Historical Journal 29 (Fall 1985): 5–18; and J. Th
omas
May, “Th
e Freedmen’s Bureau at the Local Level: A Study of a Louisiana Agent,” Loui-
siana History 9 (Winter 1968): 5–19.
6. For an overview of Reconstruction historiography, excluding recent works, see
Eric Foner, “Reconstruction Revisited,” Reviews in American History 10 (December
1982): 82–100; and John David Smith, “ ‘Th
e Work It Did Not Do Because It Could Not’:
Georgia and the ‘New’ Freedmen’s Bureau Historiography,” Georgia Historical Quar-
terly 82 (Summer 1998): 331–349. Recent works can be found in Robert Harrison, “New
Representations of a ‘Misrepresented Bureau’: Refl ections on Recent Scholarship on