20. The Roberts settlement in central Indiana, the Cheyenne Valley settlement in Wisconsin, and the Longtown community that straddles the Indiana-Ohio border still have yearly reunions, as do many more of these early pioneering settlements.
21. Interview with Stanley Madison, July 12, 2017, cited with permission. My deepest gratitude to Professor Henry Louis Gates Jr., Professor Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, Dr. Abby Wolf, Dr. Krishna Lewis, Dr. Kevin Burke, Dr. Donald Yacovone, Dr. Vera Ingrid Grant, Tom Wolejko, Shawn Lee, and all of the supportive staff and community at Harvard University’s Hutchins Center for African and African American Research, which has been my academic “home place” while I wrote this book. I could not have written this book without their encouragement, advice, and help. My grateful thanks also to Michael Bourret, Brett Brinker, Martin Luchtefeld, Benjamin Adams, MAM, and the community of St. Gregory’s Abbey for making the completion of this book possible. And finally, to my family and friends, who supported me in times of trial and rejoiced with me when times were good. I would not have made it without you.
Index
abolitionist movement, Revolutionary era
culture/views at time and, 32, 35
description/goals, 33, 34–36, 110, 121
voting equality and, 35
abolitionist movement, second-generation
activities in America (1830s), 106–107, 110
Bible and, 102–103
Cincinnati and, 100, 112, 118
first wave in America, 121
globally, 105–106
mixed-race-unions/views, 104, 192
movement (1830s–1840s), 24, 106, 110
murder of Lovejoy and, 114–115
race wars and, 116, 117, 118
schools and, 138–139, 140–141, 142, 144, 146
states not having abolitionist organizations, 32
Tennessee (early 1800s), 82
views, 92–93, 104, 125, 142, 192
as white targets, 1–2, 112, 113, 114–115, 118, 121, 128
See also specific actions; specific individuals; specific newspapers
Adams, John Quincy, 189–190
African American conventions/movement
in 1830s, 110–111
area covering, 149
attending and, 149–150
Colored National Convention, Ohio (1850s), 196
in Columbus, Ohio (1849), 150
goals/description, 149
Indiana, 162–163
Michigan (1843), 200–201
press and, 149
whites mocking, 147
African American Indian scouts, 17
African American landowning successful entrepreneurial farm
definition/criteria, xvii–xviii
numbers, xviii
See also specific farms/settlements; specific individuals
African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church, 46, 108, 137, 146, 173, 174, 203
Alabama
denial of voting equality in, 86
slavery and, 159–160
Vina Still/children and, 160–161
Alexander family/farms, 147–148, 150
Alexander, Thornton, 147
Allen, Arthur, 94, 95, 148
Allen family, 178
Allen, Richard, Bishop, 46, 110, 173
AME (African Methodist Episcopal) Church, 46, 108, 137, 146, 173, 174, 203
American Anti-slavery Society, 142
American Colonization Society, 45, 46, 116
American Revolutionary War era/values, xvii, 6, 26, 28, 29, 31–32, 45, 48, 53, 82, 87, 96, 101, 105, 113, 119, 120, 126, 150, 157, 193, 196, 199, 208
Amistad (ship), 75
Anderson, William, 192
Anderson family, 15–16
anticolonizationists, 46, 142
Arkansas
Fort Smith, 79
free African Americans and, 79
Baltimore, Coker’s boys and girls school, 137
Baptist churches, 16–17, 157, 191, 193
Barber, Amzi D., 144–145
Barkshire, Arthur, 176
basketball integration, 207–208
Battle of Tippecanoe, 11
Beal, Horace, 115
Becraft, Ann Marie, 137
Beech farming settlement, Indiana, 174
Belley, Jean-Baptiste, 33
Benezet, Anthony
background, 136
schools and, 136
Bill of Rights (US), 85, 149, 193
Birney, James
as abolitionist, 118–120
background/as enslaver, 118
churches/reversing views, 119–120
England trip and, 119
Philanthropist and, 118, 145
Bishop, Abraham, 89
Black Code bonds, 15, 69–70, 88, 95, 111–112, 122, 130, 131, 140, 169
Black Property Owners in the South (Schweninger), xviii
Blackford, Isaac, 53
Blount, William, 85
Bonaparte, Napoléon, 38, 39, 189
Boston
African American school (late eighteenth century), 136
race war (1835), 112
Tea Party/effects, 21–22
Bray School (African American), Williamsburg, Virginia, 136
Britton, John, 163
Brough brothers, 124–125, 127
Brown, John, 142
Buchanan, Robert, 112
Burke, William, 112
Calhoun, John C., 190
California first state convention/banning African Americans from voting, 189
Canada
African American communities, 100
freedom stand of, 90, 106
people moving/escaping to, 50, 68, 70, 90, 100, 157, 188
Underground Railroad, 159
Carthagena, Ohio, 5
founding, by Charles Moore, 146
Casey family, 15–16
Catholic Church/support of girls’ seminary, 137
Caulder, Peter/Eliza, 79
census/official population counts
census of 1840/fraud, 189–190
descriptions/findings, xviii, 3, 23, 30, 40, 72, 189–190
mixed marriages and, 192
Chavis, John, 88, 137
Cherokee
enslaved people of, 91
forced move, 91
churches
integration significance, 174–175
reversing views on slavery/inequality, 119–120
as white target, 175
See also specific churches; specific denominations; specific individuals
Churchill, George, 115
Cincinnati, Ohio
“Freesies,” 122
hogs and, 99
integrated school plan, 127
Philanthropist and, 118
rivermen/travels and, 121–122
white views of African Americans, 100, 124–125
Cincinnati, Ohio/race wars
of 1829, 99–101, 109
of 1836, 109–110, 113–114
background/white prejudice and, 112–113
Cincinnati, Ohio/race wars (1841)
Brough brothers, 124–125, 127
Langston and, 129–131
mob and, 123, 128–131
violence/approaching violence, 123–125, 127, 128–131
weather, 99, 123, 124, 130
Wilkerson and, 101, 123–124, 127, 128–129, 130
Civil War
free Northwest Territory states African Americans joining the fight, 203
free Northwest Territory states African Americans recruited by East Coast regiments, 200
prejudice continuing with/after, 203, 204–205
slavery end and, 203
Clague, Marie, 104
Clague, Richard
Adele Wiltz (mistress) and son, 104, 105
offering enslaved freedom/purchasing themselves, 105
wife/sons and, 104
Wilkerson and, 103–104, 105, 107
Clemens family/farms, 146, 147, 148, 150
Clemens home/museum, 208–209
Clemens, James, 147–148, 208, 209
Clemens, William R. J., 148–149
Coffin, Levi, 148, 164, 169
Coker, Daniel, 137
Cole family, 15–16
colonization movement, 45–46, 85, 116, 118
anticolonizationists, 142
comet (1811), 65–66
Concklin, Seth
background/Philadelphia, 159
capture/jail and, 158, 170, 185
death, 170, 197
Fugitive Slave Law (1850) and, 165, 169
Griers and, 158, 165, 166, 167–168, 169, 170, 171–172
Stormonts and, 158, 165, 169
time of rescue/plan and, 161, 164
Underground Railroad and, 159, 164
Vina Still/children and, 160–161, 164, 166–169
Connecticut
Black Code, 140
denial of voting equality in, 86
end of slavery, 30
New Haven race war (1834), 112
New Haven race war (1836), 126
See also schools (integrated), Crandall’s school, Connecticut
Connecticut Supreme Court, 140
Conner, William Bright/Elizabeth and family, 97
Constitution (US), 28, 32, 140, 149, 157, 163, 199
Copperheads, 200, 205
Crandall, Prudence
attempt to integrate (girls’ school), 138–140
Connecticut Supreme Court and, 140
girls’ school, Connecticut, 138
law to close school/arrest and, 139–140
whites attacking school/closing school, 140
Day (speaker at Ohio convention), 157
Day family, 15–16
Declaration of Independence, 22, 25–26, 27–29, 48, 53, 82, 113, 149, 157, 163, 199
Decrès, Denis, 38–39, 189
Delaware
denial of voting equality in, 31, 36, 86
laws on slavery and, 31
Detroit race war (1833) and repercussions, 111–112
DeWolf family, 36
Douglass, Frederick
connections/friends, 159, 195
daughter of, 150
Fugitive Slave Law (1850) and, 157
North Star newspaper, 150
threats/attempts on life, 151
William Still and, 159
Douglass, H. Ford, 157
Dred Scott v. Sanford/decision significance, 182–183
Du Bois, W. E. B./landholding study by, 206–207
earthquakes (1811/1812), 66
Easton, Hosea, Reverend
background, 126
views, 125–127, 174
Easton, James, 126
Edmonds, Mike, 184
Edmonds, Thomas, 183–184
Elliott, Aaron, 65, 70, 71
Elliott, Cornelius
Amistad (son), 75
events happening during life, 66–67
as freedom entrepreneur, 65, 67, 70–72, 74
Guard purchasing, 61, 64–65, 66
Guard/salt mines and, 61, 62–63
Sarah (wife), 75
as skilled/“valuable,” 64–65, 67, 74
wanting/buying farm land (Illinois), 74–75
Elliott, John, 64–65, 71
Ellsworth, William, 140
Embry, Ellen, 54, 55
Emerson, Eliza Sanford, 182
Emerson, William, 115
Emlen, Samuel, 146
English pioneers, New Harmony, Indiana, 42
Enlightenment, 26
Episcopal Methodist Church, 29
equal voting rights. See voting equality
Equiano, Olaudah, 27
Evansville Daily Enquirer, 179, 186
farming/farm land
grain harvesting/risk and, 18–19, 148, 177–178
marking hogs, 181
time needed to clear/improve land, 10, 150
weather of 1816 and, 13–14, 81
farming/farm land and African Americans
challenges as newly freed person, 18
costs in Illinois, 94
difficulties, 10, 13–14, 18–19
disappearance/reasons, 205–206
hiring whites and, 148, 177
markets/feeding the nation, 173
Northwest Territory/South differences, 206–207
preservation of past, 208–210
reunions, 209
See also specific farms; specific individuals; specific settlements
Faux, William, 12
Flower, George
background, 44
views and actions on slavery/African Americans, 44–46
Floyd, John, 84
Forsyth, John, 117
Fort Allison, Illinois
African American settlers encouraged to leave, 44, 46
building, 16
families around, 15–16, 208
integrated church/enslavers and, 16–17
Native Americans and, 17
War of 1812 and, 12
Fort Smith, Arkansas, 79
Foster, Prior, 145–146
France
French and Indian War, 21
French National Convention, 33–34
reversal on slavery/voting equality positions, 38–39
revolution/effects, 33–34
free African Americans
Black Code bonds and, 15, 69–70, 88, 95, 111–112, 122, 130, 131, 140, 169
borders of US territories and, 79
Canada and, 90
costs of moving and, 94–95
deciding where to move, 89–91
“free papers,” 68–69, 70, 88, 95, 97, 157
kidnapping and moving, 95–97
population increase (1790–1810), 40
southern states laws on, 73–74
state constitution exclusions/restrictions, 36, 39–40, 85–87, 110, 121–122, 149, 156, 161–164, 172, 176, 181, 188
success of/white jealousy, 5–6, 82, 100, 112, 116, 121, 125, 127, 151, 183, 184, 187, 194, 195, 196
taxation without representation/services, 148, 193
See also freedom entrepreneur; specific individuals/families
Free Soil Party, Ohio, 193
freedom
religious groups and, 29
See also specific individuals; specific locations
freedom entrepreneur
challenges with, 67–68
definition, 65
examples, 65, 67, 67–68, 70–72, 72–73, 74, 105, 107–108, 146
schools and, 137
See also specific individuals
Freeman, John
background/description, 156
Fugitive Slave Law (1850) and, 156–157
French Revolution/effects, 33–34
Fugitive Slave Law (1850)
African Americans (free/enslaved) effects/response, 156–158
Concklin and, 165, 169
Freeman example and, 156–157
provisions of, 156, 188
slave hunters and, 156
Underground Railroad and, 165
Garrison, William Lloyd
as abolitionist/writings, 1–3, 84, 119, 126
background, 119
Crandall/school integration and, 138–139
Easton and, 126
Liberator and, 1, 119
Noyes Academy and, 140–141
travels, 1–2
William Still and, 159
Gavitt, John S., 169, 170, 171, 185, 197
George III, 21
Georgia and abolitionist organizations, 32
Glover, Joshua, 191–192
Goins family, 15–16, 178
Goode-Depp, Abraham/Mary, 95
Great Migration (nineteenth century), 3
Great West. See Northwest Territory
Grier, Charles
background/as enslaved, 7–8, 14
buying land/weather of 1816 and, 13–14
death/grave, 204, 210
freedom and, 14–15
vote and, 203, 204
Grier, James, Reverend, 14, 92, 174
Grier, John, 172
Grier, Keziah
background/as enslaved, 10, 11–13, 37, 159
danger of her and family being kidnapped, 46–47
Malinda’s wedding and, 175, 176
waking early/work, 12, 41
wool and, 58–59
Grier, Keziah/Charles
children, 41, 42, 43, 57, 59, 168, 172, 175, 176
church and, 15, 17–18, 173, 174–175
Concklin/Still family and, 158, 165, 166, 167–168, 169, 170, 171–172
family description, 46
family helping refugees/Underground Railroad and, 57–58, 59, 158, 165, 166, 167–168, 169, 170, 171–172, 175
farm animals, 42, 58
farming/farm success, Gibson County, Indiana, 7–10, 18–19, 41–43, 57–58, 165–166, 173, 178, 209
forest resources/uses, 42
Lyles family and, 94
meeting/wedding of, 12, 13, 14
Missouri becoming slave state and, 47–48
non-farming options, 10
people around Fort Allison and, 15–16
registration and, 172
Stormonts and, 158–159, 165, 167–168, 170, 171
sheep/wool and, 58–59
Grier, Malinda, 43, 57, 59, 168, 172, 175, 176
Grier, Mary Jane, 172
Griffin, Isaac, 123
Guard, Timothy
Aaron Elliott and, 70, 71
Cornelius Elliott and, 61, 62–63, 66–67, 70–71, 74
salt mines/forced labor and, 61, 62–63, 64–65, 67, 70, 71
Haiti
African Americans and, 44
Saint-Domingue (Haiti) enslaved revolt, 33–35, 38, 39, 40
Hale, Charles, 112
Hall, Ann Maria, 48
Hall, Eliza, 79
Hall, John, 186
Hamilton, Jeremiah, 100
Hamilton, William, 110–111
Harper’s Ferry attack, 142
Harris, Andrew, 139
Harris, Lucy
background/in prison, 102
teaching Wilkerson to read, 102–103
Harris, Sarah, 138
Harrison, William Henry
as Indiana Territory governor, 17, 18, 37, 49, 52
petition on slavery, 37–38
as pro-slavery, 17, 18, 37–38, 49, 50, 51, 52
War of 1812/regiment of free African Americans, 51
Hawkins, Ann
bondage and, 49–50, 51, 53